针对ANDES油田的抗高温高盐二元复合驱油体系研究

ANDES油田属于高温(96℃)、高盐(71.5 g/L)油藏。在此条件下,将耐温耐盐理想的疏水缔合聚合物AP-P5与4种表面活性剂复配,发现0.3%的磺酸盐(MJ2)或大庆石油磺酸盐(DQ)与2500mg/LAP-P5形成的二元体系界面张力可以达到10^(-3)mN/m数量级。考察了温度、矿化度对这两种二元复合体系黏度的影响。结果表明,两种二元复合体系黏度随着温度、矿化度的增加而降低。在96℃、矿化度为70 g/L的条件下,3000 mg/L AP-P5+0.3%MJ2+稳定剂硫脲二元复合体系的黏度为99.4mPa·s,达到现场要求。并且该二元体系在此条件下放置两个月后,黏度趋于稳定,界面张力波动幅度不大。室内物理模拟驱油实验中,当二元复合体系注入体积为0.65 PV时,采收率增幅最大(24.5%)。前期水驱至含水85%+0.65 PV(3000 mg/L AP-P5+0.3%MJ2)+后期水驱至出口含水98%为最佳驱油方案。

Finite element modelling of the geodynamic processes of the Central Andes subduction zone:A Reference Model

This paper presents preliminary results of three-dimensional thermomechanical finite-element models of a parameter study to compute the current temperature and stress distribution in the subduction zone of the central Andes （16°S-26°S） up to a depth of 400 km, the bottom of the asthenosphere. For this purpose a simulation running over c. 50,000 years will be realized based on the geometry of a generic subduction zone and an elasto-viscoplastic Drucker-Prager rheology. The kinematic and thermal boundary conditions as well as the rheological parameters represent the current state of the study area. In future works the model will be refined using a systematic study of physical parameters in order to estimate the influence of the main parameters （e.g. viscosity, fault friction, velocity, shear heating） on the results of the reference model presented here. The reference model is kept as simple as possible to be able to estimate the influence of the parameters in future studies in the best possible way, whilst minimizing comnutational time.

Bank erosion in an Andean páramo river system: Implications for hydro-development and carbon dynamics in the neotropical Andes

The páramo of the Northern Andes provide critically important ecosystem services to the Northern Andean region in the form of water provisioning and carbon sequestration, both of which are a result of the páramo?s organic-rich soils. Little is known, however, about the hydro-geomorphic characteristics of the rivers that drain these ecosystems. With impending plans for widespread hydro-development and increasing implementation of carbon-sequestering compensation for ecosystem services programs in the region it is imperative that we develop a thorough understanding of the hydrogeomorphic role that rivers play in this unique ecosystem. The objective of this study was to quantify bank erosion along an Amazonian headwater stream draining a small, relatively undisturbed páramo catchment to gain a better understanding of the natural erosion regime and the resulting sediment contributions from this unique ecosystem. This study implemented a combination of field, laboratory, and Geographic Information Systems techniques to quantify bank erosion rates and determine a bank erosion sediment yield from the Ningar River, a small páramo catchment(22.7 km^2) located in the eastern Andean cordillera of Ecuador. Results show that bank erosion rates range from 3.0 to ≥ 390.0 mm/yr, are highly episodic, and yield at least 487 tons of sediment annually to the Ningar River. These results imply that 1) páramo ecosystems substantially contribute to the sediment load of the Amazon River basin; 2) bank erosion is a potentially significant flux component of basin-scale carbon cycles in páramo ecosystems; and 3) hydrologic alteration campaigns(dam building) will likely critically alter these contributions and concomitantly disconnect a critical source of sediment and nutrients to downstream ecosystems.

Cenozoic basin evolution of the Central Patagonian Andes:Evidence from geochronology, stratigraphy, and geochemistry

The Central Patagonian Andes is a particular segment of the Andean Cordillera that has been subjected to the subduction of two spreading ridges during Eocene and Neogene times. In order to understand the Cenozoic geologic evolution of the Central Patagonian Andes, we carried out geochronologic(U-Pb and^(40)Ar/^(39)Ar), provenance, stratigraphic, sedimentologic, and geochemical studies on the sedimentary and volcanic Cenozoic deposits that crop out in the Meseta Guadal and Chile Chico areas(～47°S). Our data indicate the presence of a nearly complete Cenozoic record, which refutes previous interpretations of a hiatus during the middle Eocene-late Oligocene in the Central Patagonian Andes. Our study suggests that the fluvial strata of the Ligorio Marquez Formation and the flood basalts of the Basaltos Inferiores de la Meseta Chile Chico Formation were deposited in an extensional setting related to the subduction of the Aluk-Farallon spreading ridge during the late Paleocene-Eocene. Geochemical data on volcanic rocks interbedded with fluvial strata of the San Jose Formation suggest that this unit was deposited in an extensional setting during the middle Eocene to late Oligocene. Progressive crustal thinning allowed the transgression of marine waters of Atlantic origin and deposition of the upper Oligocene-lower Miocene Guadal Formation. The fluvial synorogenic strata of the Santa Cruz Formation were deposited as a consequence of an important phase of compressive deformation and Andean uplift during the early-middle Miocene. Finally, alkali flood basalts of the late middle to late Miocene Basaltos Superiores de la Meseta Chile Chico Formation were extruded in the area in response to the suduction of the Chile Ridge under an extensional regime. Our studies indicate that the tectonic evolution of the Central Patagonian Andes is similar to that of the North Patagonian Andes and appears to differ from that of the Southern Patagonian Andes, which is thought to have been the subject of continuous compressive deformation since the late Early Cretaceous.

Glacier retreat, rock weathering and the growth of lichensin the Churup Valley, Peruvian Tropical Andes

The most heavily glacierized tropical range in the world– the Peruvian Cordillera Blanca-has been losing ice since the end of the Little Ice Age(LIA).In this study,the decline of the Churup glacier(9°28’18"S;77°25’02"W)and associated processes were documented employing multi-proxy approach including the analysis of remotely sensed images(1948-2016),the Schmidt hammer rock test and lichenometric dating.It is shown that Churup glacier has lost the vast majority of its estimated LIA extent(1.05±0.1 km^2;45.0×10^6-57.4×10^6 m^3).The rate of glacier retreat is documented to vary in space(SE,SW and NW-facing slopes)and time,with the peak between 1986 and 1995.With an area of 0.045 km^2 in 2016,it is expected that the complete deglaciation of the Churup valley is inevitable in the near future.Recently(post-LIA)exposed bedrock surfaces have shown higher R-values(54.2-66.4,AVG 63.3,STDEV 2.9)compared to pre-LIA exposed surfaces(46.1-59.3,AVG 50.1,STDEV 4.9),confirming the links to the duration of rock weathering.The Lichenometric dating is applied to recently exposed areas and elevations above 4800 m a.s.l.,revealing only limited reliability and agreement with the age of deglaciation estimated from remotely-sensed images in such an environment.

Earthquake distribution and lithospheric rheology beneath the Northwestern Andes, Colombia

The rheological behavior of the lithosphere beneath the Northwestern(NW)Andes(Colombian)remains uncertain under a complex geological setting.Here,we analyze the earthquake distribution and the stress drop on the western and the eastern of the transition area between the Upper Magdalena Valley(UMV)and the Middle Magdalena Valley(MMV),a zone related to a plate tectonic transition from steeper to flatter subduction style slabs(Nazca and Caribbean plates).Our results consistently explain the tectonic and geodynamic context of the study area supported in two rheological profiles,which reveal the brittle/ductile transition of the lithospheric crust and mantle and allow to constrain the lithospheric rheological thickness.The subduction phenomenon of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate is observed in the western zone.In the eastern region,we find a remarkable aseismic zone under the Eastern Cordillera below 20-km-deep,which made more difficultan accurate estimation of the crust/mantle boundary.This seismic particularity leads us to support the hypothesis of a delamination process due to the tectonic overload generated by the Eastern Cordillera,and that promotes thermal anomalies.Our results also suggest that the earthquake dataset correlated with rheological estimations may offer a consistent interpretation of the mechanical behavior of the lithosphere.

Two-tiered reconstruction of Late Pleistocene to Holocene changes in the freezing level height in the largest glacierized areas of the Colombian Andes

One way of deducing vertical shifts in the altitudinal distribution of Colombian high-altitude páramo environments is by inferring fluctuations in the height of the local freezing level.In our research,we are implementing two complementary approaches to reconstruct Late Pleistocene to Holocene changes in the freezing level height(FLH)in two of the most extensively glacier-covered areas of the northern Andes.We combined remote sensing and field-based geomorphological mapping with time-series reconstruction of changes in the altitude of the 0°C isotherm.Changes in the FLH were based on alreadypublished~30 kyr paleo-reconstructions of sea surface temperatures(SSTs)of the eastern tropical Pacific and the western tropical Atlantic,as well as on reconstructed long-term sea level changes and empirical orthogonal functions of present-day(historical)Indo-Pacific and tropical Atlantic SST anomalies.We also analyzed the probability distribution of air-sea temperature differences and the spatial distribution of grid points with SSTs above the minimum threshold necessary to initiate deep convection.We considered available historical nearsurface and free air temperature data of ERA-Interim reanalysis products,General Circulation Model(GCM)simulations,weather stations,and(deployed by our group)digital sensors,to assess the normal Environmental Lapse Rates(ELRs)at the regional to local scale.The combined maps of glacial landforms and our reconstructed FLHs provided us with a wellfounded inference of potential past glacier advances,narrowing down the coarse resolution of ice margins suggested by previous research efforts.The extent of the areas with temperatures below the freezing point suggested here for the summits of our main study site exceeds in magnitude the corresponding glacier icecaps and front advances proposed by previous studies.Conversely,our average lowest altitudes of the FLH for our comparative site are consistently above the main glacier-front advances previously suggested.Our results indicate that,compared to the maximum upward changes that likely took place over the past ca.20,000 years in our two areas of interest,the observed(present-day)upward shifts of the FLH have occurred at a rate that significantly surpasses our inferred rates.Our study helps fill the gaps in understanding past climatic changes and present trends in the region of interest and provides some insights into analyzing the signals of natural and anthropogenic climate change.

Species,growth form,and biogeographic diversity of summit vegetation along an elevation gradient in the tropical Andes:a baseline for climate change monitoring

Tropical alpine ecosystems exhibit outstanding plant diversity and endemism while being particularly sensitive to the impacts of climate change.Although understanding spatiotemporal changes in plant species composition,richness and community structure along tropical alpine altitudinal gradients is of primary importance,both the functional and historical/biogeographic dimensions of vegetation diversity remain largely unexplored.We used Generalized Linear Models and multivariate analyses to assess changes in species,growth forms,and biogeographic groups richness and abundance,in response to habitat variables along an elevation gradient in seven summits(3800 to 4600 m asl)in the Venezuelan Andes,studied using the standardized approach of the GLORIA-Andes monitoring network.The habitat variables assessed were soil temperature(-10 cm),soil organic matter,slope inclination,and substrate cover.We found 113 species,representing72 genera,32 families,13 growth forms,and seven biogeographic origins,that included 25%of endemic elements.We observed richer vegetation,both in terms of species and growth forms,in summits with higher soil temperatures and higher SOM content,as well as higher biogeographic origin richness with increasing soil temperatures.The presence of holarctic elements increased toward higher elevations,while the occurrence of austral antarctic elements increased toward lower elevations.Our results indicate that biogeographic and functional approaches to vegetation diversity capture well the effect of abiotic filtering on community structuring in these tropical alpine environments.These findings constitute an important baseline for monitoring vegetation dynamics linked to climate change in the Venezuelan Andes by highlighting the functional and historical perspective on vegetation analyses,in contrast with more traditional approaches,based only on taxonomic species diversity.

Abandoned Altitudes? Decrease and Expansion of Grassland in the Hinterland of Popayán, Southern Colombian Andes

Due to their ecological disadvantages, many mountain regions have experienced land-use abandonment and shrub encroachment on former grassland at higher altitudinal zones--especially during recent decades of urbanization. But does this trend also apply to the hinterland of urban settlements？ By using the Southern Colombian example of Popay^n, a medium-sized city located in the Northern Andes, we can show that the landscape changes observed between 1989 and 2010 can hardly be related to agricultural abandonment. Hypsometric variations of land-cover change indicate that, until 2001, woods or shrubland expanded faster at the lower altitudinal range adjacent to the city than at the more remote higher zones. In contrast, after 2001 grassland areas increased on former woods or shrnbland at all altitudinal belts. Both periods thus present developments that can be interpreted as the result of land-use expansion below 2000 m asl and land-use persistence in the tierrafrla of the mountain city＇s hinterland.

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of a Páramo Ecosystem in the Northern Ecuadorian Andes 1988-2007

Paramo is a term used to describe tropical alpine vegetation between the continuous timberline and the snow line in tbe Northern Andes. Paramo environments provide important species habitat and ecosystem services. Changes in spatial extent of the paramo ecosystem at Pambamarca in the Central Cordillera of the northern Ecuadorian Andes were analysed using multi-temporal Landsat TM/ETM＋ satellite data. The region suffered a loss of 1826.6 ha or 20% of the total area at a rate of 100 ha/annum during 1988-2007 period. It is found that permanent paramo cover decreased from 8350 ha in 1988 to 5864 ha in 2007 at a fairly constant rate （R^2=0.94）. This loss is attributed to expansion of commercial agriculture and floriculture in the valleys coupled with increased population pressure. Land at higher elevations has been cleared for small scale agriculture. Loss of the paramo ecosystem will exert a number of negative impacts on ecosystem services and livelihoods of the local population at Pambamarca.

Effects of Conservation Tillage on Total and Aggregated Soil Organic Carbon in the Andes

Many Andisols of the Andes have been disturbed by traditional potato-based rotation agriculture disrupting soil structure, water retention capacity and organic matter content. This study was undertaken to investigate the contribution of conservation farming technology or reduced tillage in potato-based rotations in the Colombian Andes in order to rehabilitate total and aggregated soil organic C in disturbed organic matter-rich Andisols. Soils were sampled from farms with 7-year of reduced tillage and farms with conventional farming practices. Ultrasound energy was applied to samples to disrupt aggregation and total soil C was determined in order to investigate the amount of carbon held inside the aggregates of different soil size classes. Results indicated that reduced tillage in potato-based crop rotations increased the soil C concentration and average C content in the whole profile (≈117 cm depth) by 50 and 33% (1636 t C ha?1 vs. 1224 t C ha?1), respectively, as compared to conventional farming practices. Carbon content increased 177% in the subsoil (A2 horizon, 78 -117 cm depth, from 215 to 596 t?ha?1), although most of the soil C was in the A1 horizon (between 0 -78 cm average thickness, 1097 t?ha?1). These increases show that reduced tillage enhances C stores in Andisols which are already high in organic matter. In addition, C in aggregates represented more than 80% of the total organic matter and it was positively affected by conservation practices. The C increase was preferential in the smaller macroaggregates (

How to fill the biodiversity data gap:Is it better to invest in fieldwork or curation?

Data gaps and biases are two important issues that affect the quality of biodiversity information and downstream results.Understanding how best to fill existing gaps and account for biases is necessary to improve our current information most effectively.Two current main approaches for obtaining and improving data include(1)curation of biological collections,and(2)fieldwork.However,the comparative effectiveness of these approaches in improving biodiversity data remains little explored.We used the Flora de Bogota project to study the magnitude of change in species richness,spatial coverage,and sample coverage of plant records based on curation versus fieldwork.The process of curation resulted in a decrease in species richness(synonym and error removal),but it significantly increased the number of records per species.Fieldwork contributed to a slight increase in species richness,via accumulation of new records.Additionally,curation led to increases in spatial coverage,species observed by locality,the number of plant records by species,and localities by species compared to fieldwork.Overall,curationwas more efficient in producing new information compared to fieldwork,mainly because of the large number of records available in herbaria.We recommend intensive curatorial work as the first step in increasing biodiversity data quality and quantity,to identify bias and gaps at the regional scale that can then be targeted with fieldwork.The stepwise strategy would enable fieldwork to be planned more costeffectively given the limited resources for biodiversity exploration and characterization.

Post-fire recovery of Puya raimondii, vegetation and birds in the puna of Huascarán National Park, Perú

A large fire of 233 ha in Huascarán National Park in Peru provided an opportunity to compare plant and bird responses in burned and nearby unburned zones of the puna. Heights and live diameters of flagship Puya raimondii rosettes(assigned to four broad developmental phases), plant communities(66 species in 24 families and nine growth forms) and bird communities(77 species in six trophic guilds) were monitored after the fire. Although no mortality was observed, Puya raimondii plants were affected by the fire, losing approximately 60% of their photosynthetic area across all developmental phases, but recovered quickly during the first two years after fire. The comparison of Puya rosette recovery after fire was complicated by the changes in live rosette diameter for unburned plants, which showed plasticity of photosynthetic area linked to seasonal and annual fluctuations in precipitation in this relatively dry environment(decreased by 26% for mature adult plants over the study period). Fire caused an immediate change in the density, biomass and composition of vegetation. Although the species present remained similar, their abundances changed significantly immediately after the fire, with notable reductions in dominant tussock grasses. This provided opportunities for other plants, resulting in higher postfire diversity of plant species, genera, families and growth forms. In turn, the changes in vegetation after fire affected the composition of birds according to their trophic guild. Granivores largely disappeared,generalists were mostly unaffected, and other guilds showed a more complex response. As the vegetation recovered, most displaced birds returned within approximately one year.

Woody plant taxonomic,functional,and phylogenetic diversity decrease along elevational gradients in Andean tropical montane forests:Environmental filtering and arrival of temperate taxa

Mountains are paramount for exploring biodiversity patterns due to the mosaic of topographies and climates encompassed over short distances.Biodiversity research has traditionally focused on taxonomic diversity when investigating changes along elevational gradients,but other facets should be considered.For first time,we simultaneously assessed elevational trends in taxonomic,functional,and phylogenetic diversity of woody plants in Andean tropical montane forests and explored their underlying ecological and evolutionary causes.This investigation covered four transects(traversing ca.2200 m a.s.l.) encompassing 114 plots of 0.1 ha across a broad latitudinal range(ca.10°).Using Hill numbers to quantify abundance-based diversity among 37,869 individuals we observed a consistent decrease in taxonomic,functional,and phylogenetic diversity as elevation increased,although the decrease was less pronounced for higher Hill orders.The exception was a slight increase in phylogenetic diversity when dominant species were over-weighted.The decrease in taxonomic and functional diversity might be attributed to an environmental filtering process towards highlands,where the increasingly harsher conditions exclude species and functional strategies.Besides,the differences in steepness decrease between Hill orders suggest that rare species disproportionately contribute to functional diversity.For phylogenetic diversity the shifting elevational trend between Hill orders indicates a greater than previously considered influence in central Andean highlands of tropical lowlands originated species with strong niche conservatism relative to distantly related temperate lineages.This could be explained by a decreasing presence and abundance of temperate,extratropical taxa towards the central Andes relative to northern or southern Andes,where they are more prevalent.

Andes Core N801 32位MCU省电效率可达75 DMIPS/mW

晶心科技（Andes）是亚洲首家原创性32位CPUIP与系统芯片设计平台的供应商,日前该公司首次推出最新款晶心Andes Core N801 32位MCU。晶心科技公司总经理林志明告诉记者,该产品不仅在省电效率方面可达75DMIPS/mW,高于一般8位MCU70倍以上的效率。在适当的组态下,效能甚至可高达1.2DMIPS/MHz，高于一般8位MCU10倍以上的效能。

The 2015/16 El Nino-related glacier changes in the tropical Andes

Significant changes in the area and snowline altitude of two glacierized mountains - Nevado Champara (Cordillera Blanca,Peru) and Cerro Tilata (Cordillera Real,Bolivia)- in the tropical Andes,before and after the recent El Nino in 2015/16 period,have been analysed using Sentinel 2A and Landsat data.It is seen that the recent El Nino has been accompanied by higher fluctuation in glacier coverage on Nevado Champara and the loss of glacier coverage on Cerro Tilata was very high during the past 16 years.Rise in snowline altitude of selected glaciers was very high after the 2015/16 El Nino.Increase in the area covered by snow and ice during the La Nina periods were not enough to cover the ice loss occurred during the previous El Nino events and the strongest El Nino in 2015/ 16 was followed by a significant loss of ice-covered areas in the tropical Andes.Freshwater resources in this region will be affected in the near future if the current trends in glacier decline continue.Adaptation strategies needs to be implemented to reduce the impacts of the continuing loss of glacierized on regional communities in the tropical Andean region.

Glacial Lakes in the Andes under a Changing Climate:A Review

In this article, we review the current knowledge of the glacial recession and related glacial lake development in the Andes of South America. Since the mid-1980 s, hundreds of glacial lakes either expanded or formed, and predictions show that additional hundreds of lakes will form throughout the 21 st century. However, studies on glacial lakes in the Andes are still relatively rare. Many glacial lakes pose a potential hazard to local communities, but glacial lake outburst floods(GLOFs) are understudied. We provide an overview on hazards from glacial lakes such as GLOFs and water pollution, and their monitoring approaches. In real-time monitoring, the use of unmanned aerial systems(UASs) and early warning systems(EWSs) is still extremely rare in the Andes, but increasingly authorities plan to install mitigation systems to reduce glacial lake risk and protect local communities. In support, we propose an international remote sensing-based observation initiative following the model of, for example, the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space(GLIMS) one, with the headquarters in one of the Andean nations.

Altitudinal analysis of carbon stocks in the Antisana páramo,Ecuadorian Andes

Aims The importance of quantifying carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystems is crucial for determining climate change dynamics.However,the present regional assessments of carbon stocks in tropical grasslands are extrapolated to unsampled areas with a high degree of uncertainty and without considering the carbon and nitrogen composition of vegetation and soil along altitudinal ranges.This study aims to assess carbon and nitrogen concentrations in soil and vegetation,aboveground carbon stocks distribution and soil organic carbon stocks along an altitudinal range in the páramo region in the Ecuadorian Andes.Methods The vegetation inventory was conducted using 15×15 m sampling plots distributed in three altitudinal ranges.Based on the patterns exhibited by the dominant vegetation growth forms,biomass and soil were sampled to quantify the corresponding carbon and nitrogen concentrations.Subsequently,the aboveground live biomass along the páramo altitudinal range was estimated using allometric equations.Finally,soil and vegetation carbon stocks were estimated for the entire basin.Important Findings Altitudinal analysis supported a potential distribution of carbon and nitrogen concentrations in soil,litter and live tissues,where higher concentrations were found in the low altitudinal range mainly for tussocks and acaulescent rosettes.Cellulose in litter showed higher concentrations at low altitudinal ranges for acaulescent rosettes and cushions only.For the same growth forms,lignin patterns in litter were higher in high altitudinal ranges.Soil texture provided complementary information:high percentage of silt was highly correlated to high soil nitrogen and carbon concentration.Tussocks were found to be responsive to altitude with their,highest aboveground carbon stocks occurring at the low altitudinal range,but cushions and acaulescent rosettes responded differently.The established relationships among soil,vegetation and altitude shown in this study must be taken into account to estimate both aboveground and soil organic carbon stocks in páramo regions—such estimates will be considerably inaccurate if these relationships are ignored.

Overcast sky condition prevails on and influences the biometeorology of the tropical Andean Páramos

Clouds play a major role in modulating the biometeorological processes. We studied the influence of cloudiness on four biometeorological variables:daily air temperature(Tair), relative humidity(RH),reference evapotranspiration(ETr),and photosynthetic active radiation(PAR), recorded at four sites of Andean Páramos in southern Ecuador during 2.5 to 5.5 years. First, we quantified both the cloud cover percentage(Cloud%) creating cloud masks over the visible bands of Landsat 7 images and the sky condition(K_(T)) using the records of solar and extraterrestrial radiation. Second, we estimated KTfrom Cloud%. Finally, we quantified T_(air), RH, ET_(r), and PAR under clear, cloudy, and overcast K_(T) and their dependence on KT. The average Cloud% ranged between 65%–76%, and KTcorroborated the prevailing overcast sky(between 55% and 72.5% of the days) over the páramos. The proposed model performed well in the sites of calibration(R^(2)= 0.80;MBE = 0.00;RMSE = 0.05) and validation(R^(2)= 0.74;MBE =-0.07;RMSE = 0.11). The overcast sky diminished T_(air)(≤ 10℃), ET_(r)(≤ 1.6 mm day-1), and PAR(4 MJ m^(-2)day^(-1)) and increased RH(≥ 88%),while the variables showed the opposite behavior during the uncommon clear sky(≤ 5.5% of the days).Thus, mostly the dynamic of RH(R^(2)≥ 0.62), ETr(R^(2)≥ 0.85), and PAR(R2≥ 0.77) depended on K_(T). Hence,the prevailing overcast sky influenced the biometeorology of the páramos.

Cenozoic Age Counterclockwise Rotation in the Northwest End of the Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina

Investigations into the Andean orocline revealed a counterclockwise rotation of about 37° in the north and a clockwise rotation of about 29° in the south. This rotation would have started in the Eocene because the Nazca and South American plates converged. The transition zone between the Puna and the Sierras Pampeanas has a clockwise rotation pattern. Our new data show that the NE convergence of the Nazca and South American plates caused the counterclockwise rotation around the NW end of the Sierras Pampeanas. The temperature rise during a magmatic activity at 13 Ma would have favored a counterclockwise rotation of the mountain blocks of about 20° on a detachment zone within 10 to 15 km of depth. These range rotations generated local stress tensors trending NE and NW, facilitating the development of valleys, basins, mineralized dikes, mineral deposits, and alluvial fans separated from their origin. The Atajo fault shows both ductile and brittle characteristics. A mylonitic belt from the Sierra de Aconquija was juxtaposed on the rocks of the Ovejería Block and the Farallón Negro Volcanic Complex by reverse vertical displacement, and a dextral horizontal component of displacement resulted in curvatures that gave rise to pull-apart basins and step over features. The Santa Maria Valley, Campo del Arenal, Hualfín Valley, and Pipanaco salt flat most likely constituted a vast early Miocene basin rarely interrupted by low feature relief.