Fertilization and Soil Ploughing Practices under Changing Physical Environment Lead to Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics under Conservation Agriculture in Rice-Wheat Cropping System: A Scoping Review

Ploughing and fertilization practices in rice-wheat system have deteriorated the soil carbon (C) pools. Conservation agriculture (CA) based management approaches have proven to enhance C sequestration and reverse the loss of soil-organic-carbon (SOC), which further enhances soil fertility. Different fractions of SOC pools react to the alterations in management practices and indicate changes in SOC dynamics as compared to total C in the soil. Higher SOC levels in soil have been observed in case of reduced/no-till (NT) practices than conventional tillage (CT). However, between CT and zero tillage/NT, total SOC stocks diminished with an increase in soil depth, which demonstrated that the benefits of SOC are more pronounced in the topsoil under NT. Soil aggregation provides physical protection to C associated with different-sized particles, thus, the improvement in soil aggregation through CA is an effective way to mitigate soil C loss. Along with less soil disturbance, residual management, suitable crop rotation, rational application of manures and fertilizers, and integrated nutrient management have been found to be effective in not only improving soil C stock but also enhancing the soil health and productivity. Thus, CA can be considered as a potential method in the build-up of SOC of soil in rice-wheat system.

Researches on Agricultural Cooperative Economic Organization Promoting Agricultural Insurance Development

The advantages of cooperative economic organization being the effective carrier of agricultural insurance development are analyzed. Firstly, cooperative economic organization promotes scale management and solves the problem of decentralized operation of small households. Secondly, cooperative economic organization can settle the problem of peasants' low systematization. Thirdly, cooperative economic organization can largely reduce the costs of agricultural insurance operation. Fourthly, cooperative organization decreases moral risks as well as adverse selection to some extent. Lastly, cooperative organization, to a certain degree, reduces the risks of agricultural production and increases the insurability of agricultural risks. Meanwhile, limitations of agricultural cooperative economic organization being the carrier of agricultural insurance operation are pointed out. Firstly, cooperative economic organization has limited coverage and small size of organization, which is harmful to the diversification of agricultural risks. Secondly, cooperative economic organization lacks capital funds and its development is not standard, which is not perfect for the function exertion as a carrier. Lastly, members of professional cooperative organization have low cultural qualities, which restrict the implementation of agricultural insurance. The modes of farmers' cooperative economic organization promoting agricultural insurance development are proposed, including mode of agricultural insurance cooperative ( mutual corporation), mode of "leading enterprises (companies) + professional cooperative organization (planting majors) + insurance" and mode of professional cooperatives serving as agricultural insurance agent. Last of all, the promoting role of agricultural insurance in agricultural cooperative economic organization is briefly illustrated.

Research on Structure Innovation of Agricultural Organization in China's Southwestern Mountainous Regions

Taking agricultural organization in China's southwestern mountainous regions as research object,on the basis of analysis of the status quo of agricultural organization development in China's southwestern mountainous regions,we use related theoretical knowledge on economics and organization science,we probe into the process of innovation and mechanism of action concerning the structure of agricultural organization in China's southwestern mountainous regions over the past 30 years.Finally we draw several general conclusions regarding structure innovation of agricultural organization in China's southwestern mountainous regions as follows:first,the structure innovation of agricultural organization,a gradual process,proceeds ceaselessly along with ongoing progress and development of agriculture,and in this process,farmers always play a fundamental role;second,the structure innovation of agricultural organization is affected by many factors,and government institutional arrangement and change in market conditions is undoubtedly the most critical factor;third,the probable evolving direction of structure innovation of agricultural organization includes internal differentiation of the same form of agricultural organization,association of different forms of agricultural organization,and emergence of other forms of agricultural organization.

Technology Innovation Mode of Agricultural Leading Enterprise——Based on the Virtual Organization Mode

Based on the definition of technology innovation of agricultural leading enterprises by domestic and foreign experts and scholars,technology innovation of agricultural enterprises is a process of new market increment,which uses new knowledge,technology,process and production mode,produces new products,offers new services and realizes commercialization. Characteristics of agricultural technology innovation are introduced,such as obvious regionality,relatively high risk,long-term periodicity and public attribute. Predicament for technology innovation of leading enterprises is analyzed,such as technical constraints,financial constraints and personnel constraints. Technological Innovation Mode can be classified into three modes of independent innovation,imitative innovation and cooperative innovation by the method of technology innovation. Among them,since there are some defects in the technology innovation process,independent innovation and imitative innovation are generally not used for the innovation of agricultural enterprises. Cooperative Innovation Mode can rely on foreign aid,can realize complementary advantages and achievement sharing,and can be widely applied in the agricultural innovation enterprise. Virtual organization in cooperation innovation mode is described,which makes up for technology,capital and human resources barriers in the process of agricultural enterprise innovation. Therefore,this mode is popular among the agricultural innovation enterprise.

International Experience of Farmers Specialized Cooperative Economic Organizations in Marketing of Agricultural Products

In the world,development modes of farmers specialized cooperative economic organizations mainly includes two types:( i) specialized agricultural cooperatives with the United States of America as representative,and( ii) comprehensive agricultural cooperatives with Japan and South Korea as representative. In comparison,China mainly develops farmers specialized cooperatives which are agricultural production with family as unit and small in land and management scale like agricultural production in Japan. Therefore,in marketing of agricultural products,cooperatives in the United States of America and Japan have successful experience. China may learn such experience in the development of farmers specialized cooperatives.

Connotation and Realization of Ningxia Agricultural Organization:Practice Induction and Model Reference

Through a large number of literature studies and field survey,from the perspective of small farmers’integration into agricultural modernization,this paper innovatively divided the current integration mode of national agricultural organizations into five main types:leading enterprises,leading new agricultural business entities,cooperative financial institutions,embedded scientific research institutes,and financial poverty alleviation and assistance.It found that Ningxia region can gradually carry out horizontal integration and extension in the process of promoting the vertical integration and extension of agricultural industry value chain,and try to explore the possibility of new integration mode such as"modern agricultural cloud service public platform+leading enterprises+farmers"in Ningxia,in order to bridge the gaps in agricultural organization policies through the pilot,because the village plans to plan the development of the industry,adapt to the local conditions to strengthen the village collective economy,and continuously improve the degree of farmers’organization.

The Governance Structure and Performance of Agricultural Cooperative Economic Organizations in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area

On the basis of questionnaire survey results of 100 agricultural cooperative economic organizations in Three Gorges Reservoir Area,this article uses the structural equation modeling as analysis tool to conduct empirical analysis of the governance structure and performance of agricultural cooperative economic organizations. The results show that the ownership structure has the most critical impact on the performance of cooperative organizations,and the impact coefficient is as high as 0.92; the importance of oversight mechanism is basically equivalent to that of the council structure for cooperative organizations,and the impact coefficient is 0.87 and 0.86,respectively,second only to the ownership structure; the size of members' quit capacity also has a very important impact on the performance of organizations,with impact coefficient of 0.74. Thus,the problems influencing the performance of organizations,in the current governance structure of agricultural cooperative economic organizations in Three Gorges Reservoir Area,are pointed out. Finally,corresponding countermeasures are put forward.

N_2O emissions from agricultural soils in the North China Plain: the effect of chemical nitrogen fertilizer and organic manure

An enclosed chamber technique was used to measure N 2O emissions from intensively agricultural soils of the North China Plain during the periods of 1995—1996 and 1997—1998, to reflect distinct components of winter wheat and summer maize growing seasons. The results showed that the continuous application of fertilizer in agricultural soils increased N\-2O emissions by a factor of 24.1—28.1, the calculated annual chemical N fertilizer\|transformed N\-2O\|N emissions was 0.67%. Our results indicated that the application of organic manure also had a significant influence on soil N 2O emissions, which combined with the use of chemical N increased about 20% in a year. It was calculated that there were about 0.11% N of organic manure transformed as N 2O N. Annual mean N 2O emission from our study area of fertilized soils was estimated to be 57.1 μgN 2O/(m 2·h). A weak correlation was also found between N 2O emissions and soil available nitrogen content NH + 4.

Impact of agricultural intensification on soil organic carbon＂ A study using DNDC in Huantai County, Shandong Province, China

Using the biogeochemical model den itrification/decomposition （DN DC）, the dynamic changes of soil organic carbon （SOC） of farmland from the 1980s to 2030s were investigated in Huantai County, a typical intensive agricultural region in the Huang- Huai-Hai Plain of China. Prior to modelling, validation of the DNDC model against field data sets of SOC from Quzhou Experimental Station in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain was conducted at the site scale. We compared the simulated results with the observed SOC in Huantai County during 1982-2011 under two different classification methods of simulation unit （the first method integrated soil type and land use of Huantai County to form the overlapped modeling units; the second selected the 11 administrative towns as the modeling units）, and achieved a high accuracy in the model simulation with the improvement of the model parameters. Regional SOC （0-20 cm） density and stocks for Huantai County in the years 2012-2031 were predicted under different scenarios of farming management. Compared with current management practices, optimized fertilization （20% decrease of mineral N）, crop straw incorporation （90%） and appropriate animal manure input （40 kg N ha-1 yr-1） could achieve the highest level of SOC density （56.8% higher than 2011） in the period of 2012-2031. The research highlighted the importance of crop straw incorporation, optimized N fertilization and integration of crop production with ani- mal husbandry on the farmland carbon sequestration for maintaining a high land productivity in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain.

Relationship between light and heavy fractions of organic matter for several agricultural soils in China

Although numerous studies about the nature and turnover of soil organic matter（SOM） in light and heavy fractions（ LFOM and HFQM, respectively） have been made, little information is available in relation to the relationship between LFQM and HFOM, and no attempts have been made to quantify a general relationship between LFQM and HFQM for agricultural soils under field condition. Qur hypothesis is there may be an inherent relationship between LFQM and HFQM for agricultural soils under certain unaltered management practices for a long period, to this end, we therefore studied typically soils taken from different parts in China by using a simple density fractionation procedure. The results indicated that LFQM was positively correlated with LFOM/HFOM ratio for three typical soils. This information will be of particular use not only in deepening our understanding of the dynamics of SQM fractions but also in evaluating the potential of agricultural soils to sequestrate C under different management practices in a long term.

Contents of soil organic carbon and nitrogen in water-stable aggregates in abandoned agricultural lands in an arid ecosystem of Northwest China

Soil organic matter content in water-stable aggregates（WSA） in the arid ecosystems（abandoned agricultural lands especially） of China is poorly understood. In this study, we examined the WSA sizes and stability, and soil organic carbon（OC） and nitrogen（N） contents in agricultural lands with abandonment ages of 0, 3, 12, 20, 30 and 40 years, respectively, in the Minqin Oasis of Northwest China. The total soil OC and N contents at depths of 0–20, 20–40 and 40–60 cm in abandoned agricultural lands were compared to those in cultivated land（the control）. Agricultural land abandonment significantly（P0.25 mm） as the age of agricultural land abandonment increased. The effect of abandonment ages of agricultural lands on MWD was determined by the changes of OC and N accumulation in WSA sizes ＆gt;2 mm. The total OC and N contents presented a stratification phenomenon across soil depths in this arid ecosystem. That is, both of them decreased significantly at depths of 0–20 and 40–60 cm while increased at the depth of 20–40 cm. The WSA sizes ＆lt;0.053 mm had the highest soil OC and N contents（accounting for 51.41%–55.59% and 42.61%–48.94% of their total, respectively）. Soil OC and N contents in microaggregates（sizes 0.053–0.25 mm） were the dominant factors that influenced the variations of total OC and N contents in abandoned agricultural lands. The results of this study suggested that agricultural land abandonment may result in the recovery of WSA stability and the shifting of soil organic matter from the silt＋clay（＆lt;0.053 mm） and microaggregate fractions to the macroaggregate fractions. However, agricultural land abandonment did not increase total soil OC and N contents in the short-term.

Requirements and Safeguard Measures for Using Soil Fertilizer in Organic Agriculture:A Case Study of Fushun City in Liaoning Province

This paper summarized the requirements of organic agriculture for soil environment,fertilizer application and irrigation water quality,put forward safeguard measures for organic agriculture in terms of soil,fertilizer and water,and finally came up with recommendations for strengthening the use of soil fertilizers in organic agriculture.

Application of organic fertilizer for improving soybean production under acidic stress

The presence of acidic soil in rural areas poses difficulties for agricultural production.One factor regulating soil pH is the overuse of inorganic fertilizer.The increased use of fertilizers in soybean production not only raises sustainability concerns but also contributes to soil acidity.Therefore,the use of organic fertilizer could offer a solution for addressing both issues related to soil acidity and sustainability.The purpose of this study was to investigate the manipulation of soil pH using organic fertilizer for soybean production under acidic stress.The planting medium,consisting of a mixture of topsoil,rice husk charcoal,and organic fertilizer(in a ratio of 2:1:1),was supplemented with 0.5 g of NPK fertilizer as a basal treatment in each planting medium.To regulate the soil acidity to pH 4,we added FeSO_(4) and allowed the mixture to incubate for 30 days.The results demonstrate that the application of three types of organic fertilizers chicken manure(P1),oil palm empty bunch fertilizer(P2),and vermicompost(P3)positively impacts the growth of three soybean varieties.The findings indicate that the application of P2 organic fertilizer can increase vegetative growth almost 50%in soybeans on acidic soil,including plant height,leaf count,and root length.Meanwhile,applying P3 organic fertilizer can boost reproductive growth responses in soybeans on acidic soil,such as pod number(from around 0-4 unit to 42-51 unit),grain number(from around 0-5 unit to 88-90 unit),and grain weight(from around 0-0.37 g to 12-25 g).Organic fertilizer has the potential to regulate soil pH,promoting higher yields of soybeans under acidic stress.

Integration of Soil Information System and Interactive Self-Organizing Data for Agricultural Developing Zones in Red Soil Region

Integration of soil information system (SIS) and interactive self-organizing data (ISODATA) was studied to establish proper agricultural developing zones in red soil region of southern China which are of crucial importance to farmers, researchers, and decision makers while utilizing and managing red soil resources. SIS created by using ARC/INPO was used to provide data acquisition, systematic model parameter assignment, and visual display of analytic results. Topography, temperature, soil component (e.g., organic matter and pH) and condition of agricultural production were selected as parameters of ISODATA model. Taking Longyou County, Zhejiang Province as the case study area, the effect of the integration and recommendations are discussed for future research.

Studies on the Structure Evolvement of Organic Agricultural Industry in Taiwan and its Influential Factors

In order to study the development of organic agriculture in Taiwan in recent years,and based on relevant agriculture,economic and social statistics,the general scale of organic agriculture and industrial structure were treated with statistic analysis. Results suggest that the general scale of organic agriculture in Taiwan grew rapidly from 2004 to 2011. The certified organic farmers grew by 140. 59%,and the area with organic plantation grew by 302. 40%. The industrial structure has changed significantly as vegetables have become the No. 1 organic crop instead of rice. Besides of the four major crops,organic plantation has played an increasingly important role. Essential factors influencing the great-leap-forward development include the general trend of agricultural industrial structure adjustment,proliferation of management system and strategic opportunities brought by economic cycles.

Bottleneck on Supply Chain of Organic Agricultural Products and Countermeasures

Organic agriculture is one of successful models of low-carbon agriculture, and plays an important role in alleviating and adapting to climate change. However, the development of supply chain of organic agricultural products lags behind, which seriously restricts development of organic agricultural product market. In this paper, major models and bottleneck of supply chain of organic agricultural products are analyzed, and finally countermeasures are put forward.

Variations in Soil Organic Matter Content in Cultivated and Uncultivated Calcareous Soils from the Mediterranean Island of Malta after 15 Years of Cultivation

The soils of Malta are calcareous and generally undeveloped. Organic matter (OM) in these soils is low and farmers are constantly urged to increase it. The objective of this study was to evaluate any temporal variation in soil OM after 15 years of cultivation, and determine whether soil series, soil depth, and cultivation influence variation. OM was determined in the topsoil and subsoil of 7 agricultural and 4 non-agricultural sites. The sites represented 7 different soil series that are present on the island. In sampling periods 1 (t = 0 years) and 2 (t =15 years), the OM content in the collective (all soil series) bulk (topsoil and subsoil) uncultivated soil was 3.9 % and 3.8 % respectively. This was significantly greater than that of the collective bulk cultivated soil (2.4% and 2.3%). The OM in the collective uncultivated topsoil was 5.4% and 5.2% in periods 1 and 2 and was significantly higher than that of the cultivated topsoil (2.5% in both periods). The OM content in the collective uncultivated subsoil was 2.3% and 2.5% in periods 1 and 2 respectively but only that measured in period 2 was significantly higher than that of the cultivated subsoil (2.2% in both periods). On an individual soil series basis, the OM in the uncultivated topsoils was significantly higher than that of their cultivated counterparts. The differences in the subsoils were not significant. Across the uncultivated soil series, OM was significantly higher in the topsoil than in the subsoil but in the cultivated soil series the differences between topsoil and subsoil were not significant. There was no significant difference in OM between the uncultivated soils of different series, but in the cultivated the OM content was higher in soils that were more mature. After 15 years, no significant change in OM occurred in both the collective cultivated and uncultivated bulk soils, the collective topsoil and subsoil, and in most of the individual series. The OM content of each soil series was also similar to what was reported 60 and 50 years earlier by other researchers.

The Construction of Intensive and Organized Agricultural Industrialization Model with Farmers as the Main Body

The current agricultural conflicts of China are analyzed and the forms and drawbacks of current agricultural industrial structure are listed.The situations for intensifying the farmland with appropriate scale are analyzed from the aspects of policy,farmers,farms and modernization of agriculture.It is pointed out that the situations for the intensive use of land are becoming mature.Taking the single pig-breeding chain as an example,the agricultural industrialization model,which takes farmers as the main body,is expounded.Besides,its functions and significance in solving "the three agriculture problems" and facilitating the modernization of agriculture are discussed.

Organic and Elemental Carbon in Atmospheric Fine Particulate Matter in an Animal Agriculture Intensive Area in North Carolina: Estimation of Secondary Organic Carbon Concentrations

Carbonaceous components contribute significant fraction of fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Study of organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) in PM2.5 may lead to better understanding of secondary organic carbon (SOC) formation. This year-long (December 2008 to December 2009) field study was conducted in an animal agriculture intensive area in North Carolina of United States. Samples of PM2.5 were collected from five stations located in an egg production facility and its vicinities. Concentrations of OC/EC and thermograms were obtained using a thermal-optical carbon analyzer. Average levels of OC in the egg production house and at ambient stations were 42.7 μg/m3 and 3.26 - 3.47 μg/m3, respectively. Average levels of EC in the house and at ambient stations were 1.14 μg/m3 and 0.36 - 0.42 μg/m3, respectively. The OC to total carbon (TC) ratios at ambient stations exceeded 0.67, indicating a significant fraction of SOC presented in PM2.5. Principal factor analysis results suggested that possible major source of in-house PM2.5 was from poultry feed and possible major sources of ambient PM2.5 was from contributions of secondary inorganic and organic PM. Using the OC/EC primary ratio analysis method, ambient stations SOC fractions ranged from 68% to 87%. These findings suggested that SOC could appreciably contribute to total PM2.5 mass concentrations in this agriculture intensive area.

Contribution of Good Agricultural Practices to Soil Biodiversity

At present time when climate change has negative effect on soil moisture and can decrease significantly the productivity, good agricultural practises have a high importance via their direct influence on soil properties, regimes and biodiversity. Objectives of this study have been focused on the assessment of good agricultural practises in different soil cultivation types: conventional, minimum till, mulch, no-till and organic farming. Method used was based on two case study areas where organic and/or minimal farming systems have been applied. As a control, we chose soil with traditional cultivation. In organic farm, we evaluated earthworms;their amount and status and in farm with different types of cultivation we evaluated the microbial activity to assess the biodiversity conditions. Basic soil properties and soil structure have been set to be able to assess the influence of good agricultural practises on soil environment. Our study shows positive effect of these practises on soil moisture content, biodiversity and soil structure stability. These findings can be used for further studies determining the ways of soil cultivation in harmony with nature—in sustainable way.