Towards Sustainable Agricultural Systems:A Lightweight Deep Learning Model for Plant Disease Detection

A country’s economy heavily depends on agricultural development.However,due to several plant diseases,crop growth rate and quality are highly suffered.Accurate identification of these diseases via a manual procedure is very challenging and time-consuming because of the deficiency of domain experts and low-contrast information.Therefore,the agricultural management system is searching for an automatic early disease detection technique.To this end,an efficient and lightweight Deep Learning(DL)-based framework(E-GreenNet)is proposed to overcome these problems and precisely classify the various diseases.In the end-to-end architecture,a MobileNetV3Smallmodel is utilized as a backbone that generates refined,discriminative,and prominent features.Moreover,the proposed model is trained over the PlantVillage(PV),Data Repository of Leaf Images(DRLI),and a new Plant Composite(PC)dataset individually,and later on test samples,its actual performance is evaluated.After extensive experimental analysis,the proposed model obtained 1.00%,0.96%and 0.99%accuracies on all three included datasets.Moreover,the proposed method achieves better inference speed when compared with other State-Of-The-Art(SOTA)approaches.In addition,a comparative analysis is conducted where the proposed strategy shows tremendous discriminative scores as compared to the various pretrained models and other Machine Learning(ML)and DL methods.

Harmony Coefficient and Regional Agricultural Systems

The regional agricultural system （RAS） can be divided into three subsystems： ecological, economic, and social. This article examines the use of the harmony coefficient （HC）, efficacy coefficient, rank of the harmony coefficient （RHC）, and its appraising index system within the RAS. The harmony coefficient function was developed using a variance coefficient and then applied to Ziyang District, Yiyang City in Hunan Province （ZYH）, China, as a test case. From 1995 to 2002, the HC of RAS increased from 0.2982 to 0.4826 and the RHC increased from 3 to 5, although the HC trend was an ＂n＂ type in general. This suggests that the HC was weakly maladjusted and the RAS was not harmonious. The HC of the ecological subsystem decreased from 0.3898 to 0.2850, and its RHC from 4 to 3, with the HC trend following the ＂n＂ type. For the economic subsystem, the HC value increased from 0.5767 to 0.7458 and the RHC from 6 to 8. However, the trend in HC for the economic subsystem was of the ＂U＂ type. The HC of the social subsystem increased slightly from 0.4948 to 0.4663, and the RHC did not change in value. From the HC trends, the HC curve of the economic subsystem is above the HC curve of ZYH and the HC curve of the ecological subsystem is below the HC curve of ZHY. Hence, the ZHY environment has been destroyed by economic development. Environment and social building should be regarded as important issues in the future and promoting RAS harmony development should be considered. The results of the theoretical analysis match fairly closely with reality, and suggest that the harmony theory is feasible in appraising RAS development phases.

Shifts in Carbon Stocks through Soil Profiles Following Management Change in Intensive Agricultural Systems

Soil carbon content is an important ecosystem property, especially under the ongoing climate change. The stability of soil organic matter (SOM) is controlled by environmental and biological factors including anthropogenic-induced agricultural management change. However, understanding the effects of anthropogenic activities (e.g., intensive agricultural practices) on carbon stability of soil profiles remains a challenge. The objective of this study was to determine the changes in carbon stocks through soil profiles following agricultural management change from grain fields to greenhouse vegetable fields. The sampling sites were located in an intensive vegetable production area in northernChina. A total of 20 pairs of grain fields (GF) and adjacent vegetable fields (VF) within a distance of50 mwere selected. The results showed that soil organic carbon (SOC) storage increased by 10.6 mg C ha-1 in upper soil layers but decreased by 5.3 mg C hm2 indeeper soil layers due to large input of organic manure and chemical fertilizer following the conversion from GF to VF. Conversion to VF also led to increased dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) concentrations. Extremely higher input of chemical N fertilizer in the VF led to the soil C:N ratio decreased by 2.02 times and the -N leached to deeper soils increased by 3.7 times compared to that in the GF. The pH value and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) content were lower in the VF than in the GF. These results indicate that excessive nitrogen application as fertilizers might lead to deeper soil carbon depletion. Reducing nitrogen addition in intensive agricultural systems is thus necessary to reduce soil carbon loss and to maintain a relatively sustainable soil system.

Biodiversity-friendly Agricultural Practices in the Indigenous Agricultural Systems in the Biodiversity Corridor of the Alto Paraná Atlantic Forest (Paraguay)

Agricultural systems result of the coevolution between social and natural systems,where biodiversity and natural resources play an important role,emerging interactions between crops and the natural environment that allow the development of ecological processes which interact with external inputs.This research aims to describe the agricultural practices developed by the Guarani Indigenous people in the agricultural systems located within the biodiversity corridor of the Upper Parana Atlantic Forest.This exploratory study is focused on multiple cases,with a qualitative approach and from data collected during 2017 and 2018 in eleven indigenous communities.The main practices developed for the management of biodiversity are polyculture,rotation,and embroideries;they also practice agroforestry and livestock-raising.The main difficulty they face is the reduction of the surrounding biodiversity,which affects the sustainability of the system.This study shows ways for nature-based solutions and ecosystem-based adaptation according to current needs for greening the economy.

A Three-Dimensional Model for Special Ecological Agricultural System (SEAS) in the Southeast Fujian Province

Although the southeast Fujian Province has favorable bio-climatic conditions, traditional farming models are limited in effective exploitation of agriculture related resources and have deteriorated the agricultural environment. After analyzing the conditions at Maping town, we designed a three-dimensional model, special ecological agricultural system (SEAS), at Maping town. The SEAS has been practiced for three years and results show that the SEAS more efficiently utilizes local time and space resources and gains more econo- mic, ecological and social benefits. Thus, the SEAS has been considered as an optimal model for sustainable utilization of agricultural resources.

Production and Financial Analyses of the Rotating Living Wall, an Urban Agricultural System

Experiments were performed from June 2014 to May 2015 at Penn State University’s greenhouse facilities in order to understand the production capacities and financial viability of an innovative growing system referred to as the Rotating Living Wall produced by GreenTowers, a student innovation/entrepreneurship team. The system is a six-foot vertical conveyor that rotates troughs of microgreen plants to achieve even distribution of sunlight as well as relatively low maintenance within a minimal square foot area. Experiments were performed to understand differences in seasonal yields, differences in yields based on variety of microgreen, yield comparison to a traditionally grown microgreen control group;both on a yields per/trough method as well as a yields per/ft.2 method, rotational timing, moving versus stationary growth, differences in growth based on media depth, and differences in production yields from supplemental lighting. Performance criteria were based on measuring fresh weight, dry weight, height, and SPAD-meter readings (soil plant analysis development). Differences in yields throughout seasons were significant as well as differences between the Rotating Living Wall systems compared to a control group of traditional static greenhouse benches. The use of LED supplemental lighting provided significant differences in yields throughout winter season growing. Rotational timing, media depth, and physical movement of plants showed minimal or no significant influence on yields. By establishing the potential revenues and costs that were part of growing with the Rotating Living Wall system, financial viability was analyzed showing that these systems could be profitable when utilized in State College, PA, within certain operating parameters. The research completed throughout these studies has not only provided a baseline of operation for the systems but has also shown potential for the development of urban agricultural systems capable of aiding in the elimination of “food deserts” or urban neighborhoods and rural towns with limited food access.

Critical Soil Phosphorus Values for Yield Reduction in Intensive Agricultural Systems

Phosphorus(P)is an essential element for agricultural production.Over-fertilization during decades caused an accumulation of P in soils leading to eutrophication in regions characterized by intensive agriculture.These environmental concerns together with the non-renewability of P resources have led to a more sustainable P use.Knowledge about the P need of crops is essential for a sustainable agriculture thereby minimizing P losses to the environment without lowering the yield substantially.Therefore,in this study,critical soil P values for yield reduction(PCrit)were determined based on fertilizer trials conducted between 1970 and 1988 and more recent fertilizer trials(2016-2017).At rotational level a common PCrit value of 109 mg P/kg dry soil(in an ammonium lactate and acetate extract)was determined.Crop specific PCrit values were also determined for seven crops(potato,winter wheat,barley,rye,maize,sugar beet and temporary grassland).These critical values ranged from 59 mg P/kg dry soil to 164 mg P/kg dry soil with winter wheat the least and maize the most sensitive towards P deficiency.The diversity in PCrit values among crops can mainly be explained by the root intensity but also rooting depth,exudation of organic acids and phosphatases may influence the PCrit value.The soil pH also influenced the P availability significantly.Soils with a favorable pH had a significantly higher availability(i.e.,lower PCrit value)for all crops compared to soils with a suboptimal pH.Critical soil P values might help to set up new or to evaluate current soil P in target zones used for P fertilizer recommendations.

The Poor Agricultural System in Africa, Who Is to Blame?

Although agriculture is the backbone of the African economy, it has faced considerable challenges in the past sixty years. Africa has moved from being a self-sufficiency continent before the 1960s, to net food importers, with a handful of countries facing severe food shortages from drought, desertification, climate change and wars. In this article, we use the case of Northern Ghana to explore some of the salient dynamics that have resulted in the current crisis in the African agricultural sector over time. Using historical and contemporary evidence gathered from Northern Ghana during several field trips from 2013 to 2015, we argue that practices adopted as a result of colonial influence in combination with socio-economic and biophysical factors and ineffective economic policies have contributed immensely to the poor state of agriculture in Africa. Note should be taken that most of these economic policies have origins from the Structural Adjustment Policies and the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers. We conclude that our agricultural systems can be improved if policies are inclusive, equitable and sustainable and also if there are synergies between international or government organisations implementing agricultural projects over time and space.

Construction of BDS Spatiotemporal Information Agricultural Product Digital Credit System

Spatiotemporal information,positioning and navigation services have become important elements of new type infrastructure.The rapid development of global digital trade provides a large-scale application scenario for the use of Beidou Navigation Satellite System(BDS)spatiotemporal information to support the certification of origin of agricultural products.The BDS spatiotemporal information agricultural product digital credit system uses such modules as BDS,spatiotemporal information collection,spatiotemporal coding,and spatiotemporal blockchain.It incorporates multi-level joint supervision mechanisms such as government,associations,and users.Starting from the initial production link of agricultural products,it realizes the correspondence and locking of online and offline products,effectively improves the integrity and credibility of information in the production process,finished product quality and circulation process of products,effectively manages the green production and anti-channel conflicts of producers,and provides credible information for consumers,thus realizing the digital credit certification of products.The successful practice of characteristic agricultural products in Yunnan Province has verified the application ability of the BDS spatiotemporal information agricultural product digital credit system.This system has played a significant role in promoting the online and offline locking,credible information,effective supervision and high quality and high price of characteristic agricultural products from the field.The BDS provides services for global digital trade and contributes to the further enhancement of the global application scale of GNSS.

Evolving patterns of agricultural production space in China:A network-based approach

The agricultural production space,as where and how much each agricultural product grows,plays a vital role in meeting the increasing and diverse food demands.Previous studies on agricultural production patterns have predominantly centered on individual or specific crop types,using methods such as remote sensing or statistical metrological analysis.In this study,we characterize the agricultural production space(APS)by bipartite network connecting agricultural products and provinces,to reveal the relatedness between diverse agricultural products and the spatiotemporal characteristic of provincial production capabilities in China.The results show that core products are cereal,pork,melon,and pome fruit;meanwhile the milk,grape,and fiber crop show an upward trend in centrality,which is in line with diet structure changes in China over the past decades.The little changes in community components and structures of agricultural products and provinces reveal that agricultural production patterns in China are relatively stable.Additionally,identified provincial communities closely resemble China's agricultural natural zones.Furthermore,the observed growth in production capabilities in North and Northeast China implies their potential focus areas for future agricultural production.Despite the superior production capa-bilities of southern provinces,recent years have witnessed a notable decline,warranting special attentions.The findings provide a comprehensive perspective for understanding the complex relationship of agricultural prod-ucts'relatedness,production capabilities and production patterns,which serve as a reference for the agricultural spatial optimization and agricultural sustainable development.

Global Change in Agricultural Flash Drought over the 21st Century

Agricultural flash droughts are high-impact phenomena, characterized by rapid soil moisture dry down. The ensuing dry conditions can persist for weeks to months, with detrimental effects on natural ecosystems and crop cultivation. Increases in the frequency of these rare events in a future warmer climate would have significant societal impact. This study uses an ensemble of 10 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project(CMIP) models to investigate the projected change in agricultural flash drought during the 21st century. Comparison across geographical regions and climatic zones indicates that individual events are preceded by anomalously low relative humidity and precipitation, with long-term trends governed by changes in temperature, relative humidity, and soil moisture. As a result of these processes, the frequency of both upperlevel and root-zone flash drought is projected to more than double in the mid-and high latitudes over the 21st century, with hot spots developing in the temperate regions of Europe, and humid regions of South America, Europe, and southern Africa.

Tree-based ecosystem services supply and multifunctionality of church forests and their agricultural matrix near Lake Tana,Ethiopia

Ecosystem services(ES)are the connection between nature and society,and are essential for the well-being of local communities that depend on them.In Ethiopia,church forests and the surrounding agricultural matrix supply numerous ES.However,the ES delivered by both land use types have not yet been assessed simultaneously.Here we surveyed both church forests and their agricultural matrices,aiming to quantify,compare and unravel the drivers underlying tree-based ES supply,density and multifunctionality.We found that almost all church forests and half of the agricultural matrices provided high ES densities.ES multifunctionality was higher in the agricultural matrices,suggesting that people deliberately conserve or plant multifunctional tree species.Furthermore,the supply of all categories of ES was positively correlated with church forest age(p-value<0.001)in the agricultural matrix,while the extent of church forest was positively correlated with the density of all categories ecosystem services score in the church forests(p-value<0.001).Our results can be used to prioritize conservation efforts at sites that provide high levels of ES supply,ES density and ES multifunctionality,and to prioritize restoration efforts at sites with low levels thereof.

The Digital Agricultural Knowledge and Information System(DAKIS):Employing digitalisation to encourage diversified and multifunctional agricultural systems

Multifunctional and diversified agriculture can address diverging pressures and demands by simultaneously enhancing productivity,biodiversity,and the provision of ecosystem services.The use of digital technologies can support this by designing and managing resource-efficient and context-specific agricultural systems.We present the Digital Agricultural Knowledge and Information System(DAKIS)to demonstrate an approach that employs digital technologies to enable decision-making towards diversified and sustainable agriculture.To develop the DAKIS,we specified,together with stakeholders,requirements for a knowledge-based decision-support tool and reviewed the literature to identify limitations in the current generation of tools.The results of the review point towards recurring challenges regarding the consideration of ecosystem services and biodiversity,the capacity to foster communication and cooperation between farmers and other actors,and the ability to link multiple spatiotemporal scales and sustainability levels.To overcome these challenges,the DAKIS provides a digital platform to support farmers'decision-making on land use and management via an integrative spatiotemporally explicit approach that analyses a wide range of data from various sources.The approach integrates remote and in situ sensors,artificial intelligence,modelling,stakeholder-stated demand for biodiversity and ecosystem services,and participatory sustainability impact assessment to address the diverse drivers affecting agricultural land use and management design,including natural and agronomic factors,economic and policy considerations,and socio-cultural preferences and settings.Ultimately,the DAKIS embeds the consideration of ecosystem services,biodiversity,and sustainability into farmers'decision-making and enables learning and progress towards site-adapted small-scale multifunctional and diversified agriculture while simultaneously supporting farmers'objectives and societal demands.

Functional Sustainability of a Flight Dynamics Control System for Stable Hovering Flight of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle(UAV),such as in Agricultural Applications:Mathematical Modeling and Simulation

The simulation of a control system for the longitudinal axis of the rotary or fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs)is demonstrated in this study.The control unit includes design considerations of two controllers to provide robust stability,tracking of the proposed linear dynamics,an adequate set of proportional-integral-derivative(PID)controller gains,and a minimal cost function.The PID control and linear quadratic regulator(LQR)with or without full-state-observer were evaluated.An optimal control system is assumed to provide fast rise and settling time,minimize overshoot,and eliminate the steady-state error.The effectiveness of this approach was verified by a linear model of the UAV aircraft in the semi-dynamic simulation platform of Matlab/Simulink,in which the open-loop system was assessed in terms of flight robustness and reference tracking.The experimental results show that the proposed controllers effectively improve the configuration of the control system of the plant,maintain the sustainability of the dynamic flight model stability,and diminish the flight controller errors.The LQR provides robust stability,but it is not optimal in the transient phase of particular plant output.The PID control system can adjust the controller’s gains for optimal hovering(or stable slow flight)and is especially useful for the tracking system.Finally,comparing aircraft stability using PID and LQR controllers shows that the latter has less overshoot and a shorter settling time;in addition,all proposed controllers can be practically deployed as one UAV’s system,which can be handled as an exemplary model of the UAV flight management system.

Construction and Quality Assurance of Outstanding Applied Horticultural Talent Training Curriculum System under the Background of New Agricultural Science:A Case Study of Huaiyin Institute of Technology

Huaiyin Institute of Technology is taken as the research object.The content of horticulture curriculum system under the background of new agricultural science is constructed and elaborated,including theoretical curriculum system of"three platforms and seven curriculum groups"and practice system of"two platforms,three levels and four modules".Moreover,the quality assurance strategy of the curriculum system is discussed from three angles of enhancing professional emotion,enhancing professional practice and strengthening innovation ability,to reach the training objective of outstanding applied horticultural talents under the background of new agricultural science.

Reform Paths of Rural Land Property Rights System in the Context of Agricultural Modernization

The reform of rural land property rights system can promote large-scale and intensive agricultural production,improve the quality of laborers,improve agricultural production efficiency,increase farmers'income,and effectively promote the development of agricultural modernization.In the context of the reform of the"separation of three powers",the rural land property rights system still has problems in terms of ownership,use rights,disposal rights,and income rights,which affect the healthy development of agricultural modernization.In this situation,it is necessary to further clarify the subject of rural land ownership,thoroughly improve the right to use rural land,vigorously improve the right to dispose of rural land,effectively protect the right to benefit from rural land,and deeply promote the reform of the rural land property rights system in order to effectively promote the development of agricultural modernization.

Reducing Agricultural Emissions Carbon emissions from agriculture and food systems account for a full third of the world’s total greenhouse gas emissions

Persistently high temperatures this summer have brought climate change to the focal point of global attention.The Emissions Gap Report 2022 released by the United Nations Environment Programme found that the international community is falling far short of the Paris Agreement goals.Policies currently in place point to a 2.8℃temperature rise by the end of the century.Only an urgent system-wide transformation can deliver the enormous cuts needed to limit greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.

An agent-based model of agricultural land expansion in the mountain forest of Timor Island,Indonesia

The Mutis-Timau Forest Complex,located on Timor Island,Indonesia,is a mountainous tropical forest area that gradually decreases due to deforestation and forest degradation.Previous modelling studies based on patterns indicate that deforestation primarily occurs at lower elevations and near the boundaries of forests and settlements,often associated with shifting cultivation by local farmers.This study adopts a process-based modelling approach,specifically the agent-based model,to simulate land changes,particularly farmers'expansion of agricultural land around the Mutis mountain forest.The underlying concept of this agent-based approach is the interaction between the human and environmental systems.Farmers,representing the human system,interact with the land,which represents the environmental system,through land use decision-making mechanisms.The research was conducted in the Community Forest of the Timor Tengah Utara District,one of the sites within the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex with the highest deforestation rate.Land use change simulations were performed using agent-based modelling from 1999 to 2030,considering the socio-economic conditions of farmers,spatial preferences,land use decisions,and natural transitions.The results revealed that the agricultural area increased by 14%under the Business as Usual scenario and 5%under the Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation scenario,compared to the initial agricultural area of 245 hectares.The probability of farmers deciding to extend agricultural activities was positively associated with the number of livestock maintained by farmers and the size of the village area.Conversely,the likelihood of farmers opting for agricultural extensification decreased with an increase in the area of private land and the farmer's age.These findings are crucial for the managers of the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex and other relevant stakeholders,as they aid in arranging actions to combat deforestation,designing proper forest-related policies,and providing support for initiatives such as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation programs or further incentive schemes.

How to enhance agricultural plastic waste management in China?Insights from public participation

Agricultural plastics play a pivotal role in agricultural production.However,due to expensive costs,agricultural plastic waste management(APWM)encounters a vast funding gap.As one of the crucial stakeholders,the public deserves to make appropriate efforts for APWM.Accordingly,identifying whether the public is willing to pay for APWM and clarifying the decisions’driving pathways to explore initiatives for promoting their payment intentions are essential to address the dilemma confronting APWM.To this end,by applying the extended theory of planned behavior(TPB),the study conducted an empirical analysis based on 1,288 residents from four provinces(autonomous regions)of northern China.Results illustrate that:1)respondents hold generally positive and relatively strong payment willingness towards APWM;2)respondents’attitude(AT),subjective norm(SN),and perceived behavioral control(PBC)are positively correlated with their payment intentions(INT);3)environmental cognition(EC)and environmental emotion(EE)positively moderate the relationships between AT and INT,and between SN and INT,posing significant indirect impacts on INT.The study’s implications extend to informing government policies,suggesting that multi-entity cooperation,specifically public payment for APWM,can enhance agricultural non-point waste management.

Mixed Integer Robust Programming Model for Multimodal Fresh Agricultural Products Terminal Distribution Network Design

The low efficiency and high cost of fresh agricultural product terminal distribution directly restrict the operation of the entire supply network.To reduce costs and optimize the distribution network,we construct a mixed integer programmingmodel that comprehensively considers tominimize fixed,transportation,fresh-keeping,time,carbon emissions,and performance incentive costs.We analyzed the performance of traditional rider distribution and robot distribution modes in detail.In addition,the uncertainty of the actual market demand poses a huge threat to the stability of the terminal distribution network.In order to resist uncertain interference,we further extend the model to a robust counterpart form.The results of the simulation show that the instability of random parameters will lead to an increase in the cost.Compared with the traditional rider distribution mode,the robot distribution mode can save 12.7%on logistics costs,and the distribution efficiency is higher.Our research can provide support for the design of planning schemes for transportation enterprise managers.