Exploring nitrogen reduction reaction mechanisms in electrocatalytic ammonia synthesis:A comprehensive review

The electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction(eNRR)holds significant promise as a sustainable alternative to the conventional large-scale Haber Bosch process,offering a carbon footprint-free approach for ammonia synthesis.While the process is thermodynamically feasible at ambient temperature and pressure,challenges such as the competing hydrogen evolution reaction,low nitrogen solubility in electrolytes,and the activation of inert dinitrogen(N_(2))gas adversely affect the performance of ammonia production.These hurdles result in low Faradaic efficiency and low ammonia production rate,which pose obstacles to the commercialisation of the process.Researchers have been actively designing and proposing various electrocatalysts to address these issues,but challenges still need to be resolved.A key strategy in electrocatalyst design lies in understanding the underlying mechanisms that govern the success or failure of the electrocatalyst in driving the electrochemical reaction.Through mechanistic studies,we gain valuable insights into the factors affecting the reaction,enabling us to propose optimised designs to overcome the barriers.This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the various mechanisms involved in eNRR on the electrocatalyst surface.It delves into the various mechanisms such as dissociative,associative,Mars-van Krevelen,lithium-mediated nitrogen reduction and surface hydrogenation mechanisms of nitrogen reduction.By unravelling the intricacies of eNRR mechanisms and exploring promising avenues,we can pave the way for more efficient and commercially viable ammonia synthesis through this sustainable electrochemical process by designing an efficient electrocatalyst.

100 W-class green hydrogen production from ammonia at a dual-layer electrode containing a Pt-Ir catalyst for an alkaline electrolytic process

Ammonia allows storage and transport of hydrogen over long distances and is an attractive potential hydrogen carrier.Electrochemical decomposition has recently been used for the conversion of ammonia to hydrogen and is regarded as a future technology for production of CO_(2)-free pure hydrogen.Herein,a heterostructural Pt-Ir dual-layer electrode is developed and shown to achieve successful long-term operation in an ammonia electrolyzer with an anion exchange membrane(AEM).This electrolyzer consisted of eight membra ne electrode assemblies(MEAs)with a total geometric area of 200 cm~2 on the anode side,which resulted in a hydrogen production rate of 25 L h~(-1).We observed the degradation in MEA performance attributed to changes in the anode catalyst layer during hydrogen production via ammonia electrolysis.Furthermore,we demonstrated the relationship between the ammonia oxidation reaction(AOR)and the oxygen evolution reaction(OER).

Efficient oxidation of benzyl alcohol with heteropolytungstate as reaction-controlled phase-transfer catalyst

一系列 heteropolytungstates 被综合了并且作为催化剂利用了与水的过氧化氢催化本甲基酒精的氧化。结果显示三这些催化剂显示出控制反应的阶段转移催化作用的性质，并且他们有优秀催化能力到本甲基酒精的氧化。没有另外的副产品被气相色谱检测。一旦过氧化氢完全被消费，催化剂从催化剂的溶剂，和结果猛抛再循环证明催化剂有高稳定性。

Nanoengineering Metal–Organic Frameworks and Derivatives for Electrosynthesis of Ammonia

Electrocatalytic synthesis under mild conditions has become increasingly important as one of the practical alternatives for industrial applications,especially for the green ammonia(NH_(3))industry.A properly engineered electrocatalyst plays a vital role in the realization of superior catalytic performance.Among various types of promising nanomaterials,metal–organic frameworks(MOFs)are competitive candidates for developing efficient electrocatalytic NH_(3) synthesis from simple nitrogen-containing molecules or ions,such as N_(2) and NO_(3)^(−).In this review,recent advances in the development of electrocatalysts derived from MOFs for the electrosynthesis of NH_(3) are collected,categorized,and discussed,including their application in the N_(2) reduction reaction(NRR)and the NO_(3)^(−)reduction reaction(NO3RR).Firstly,the fundamental principles are illustrated,such as plausible mechanisms of NH_(3) generation from N_(2) and NO_(3)^(−),the apparatus of corresponding electrocatalysis,parameters for evaluation of reaction efficiency,and detection methods of yielding NH_(3).Then,the electrocatalysts for NRR processes are discussed in detail,including pristine MOFs,MOF-hybrids,MOF-derived N-doped porous carbons,single atomic catalysts from pyrolysis of MOFs,and other MOF-related materials.Subsequently,MOF-related NO3RR processes are also listed and discussed.Finally,the existing challenges and prospects for the rational design and fabrication of electrocatalysts from MOFs for electrochemical NH_(3) synthesis are presented,such as the evolution of investigation methods with artificial intelligence,innovation in synthetic methods of MOF-related catalysts,advancement of characterization techniques,and extended electrocatalytic reactions.

Visualization of atomic scale reaction dynamics of supported nanocatalysts during oxidation and ammonia synthesis using in-situ environmental(scanning) transmission electron microscopy

Reaction dynamics in gases at operating temperatures at the atomic level are the basis of heterogeneous gas-solid catalyst reactions and are crucial to the catalyst function.Supported noble metal nanocatalysts such as platinum are of interest in fuel cells and as diesel oxidation catalysts for pollution control,and practical ruthenium nanocatalysts are explored for ammonia synthesis.Graphite and graphitic carbons are of interest as supports for the nanocatalysts.Despite considerable literature on the catalytic processes on graphite and graphitic supports,reaction dynamics of the nanocatalysts on the supports in different reactive gas environments and operating temperatures at the single atom level are not well understood.Here we present real time in-situ observations and analyses of reaction dynamics of Pt in oxidation,and practical Ru nanocatalysts in ammonia synthesis,on graphite and related supports under controlled reaction environments using a novel in-situ environmental(scanning) transmission electron microscope with single atom resolution.By recording snapshots of the reaction dynamics,the behaviour of the catalysts is imaged.The images reveal single metal atoms,clusters of a few atoms on the graphitic supports and the support function.These all play key roles in the mobility,sintering and growth of the catalysts.The experimental findings provide new structural insights into atomic scale reaction dynamics,morphology and stability of the nanocatalysts.

STUDIES ON 1,2,3-DIAZAPHOSPHOLE Ⅳ REACTION OF 1,2,3-DIAZAPHOSPHOLE WITH ALCOHOLS

Rapid addition of alcohols to 1,2,3-diazaphosphole 1 easily gave tricoordinated phosphorus compounds,which were sulfurized to tetracoordinated phosphorus compounds. When ethylene glycol and aminoethanol were used separately to react with 1,the tricoordinated phosphorus compounds which formed,rearranged to pentacoordinated phosphorus compounds and the substituents at N_2 affected the rearrangement significantly.

THEORETICAL STUDIES ON THE REACTION MECHANISM OF AMMONIA WITH FORMALDEHY DE

The reaction mechanism of ammonia with formaldehyde was investigated by using the intrinsic reaction coordinate(IRC)method on the ab initio RHF/STO-3G basis set. our results indicate that the reaction proceeds in two stages:the first step yields the molecular complex and the second one is the rearrangement from molecular complex to the reaction proauct.

Heteropolymolybdate as a New Reaction-controlled Phase-transfer Catalyst for Efficient Alcohol Oxidation with Hydrogen Peroxide

A new catalytic process for the synthesis of aldehyde from alcohol by oxidation with H202 with high selectivity, was studied. In this system, heteropolymolybdate [C7H7N（CH3）3]3 {PO4[MoO（O2）2]4} was utilized as the reaction-controlled phase-transfer catalyst to catalyze oxidation of benzyl and aliphatic alcohols. The molar ratio of H2O2 and alcohol was 0.75, no other by-products were detected by gas chromatography, the results of oxidation reaction indicated that the catalyst has high activity and stability.

Bimetallic NiCo boride nanoparticles confined in a MXene network enable efficient ambient ammonia electrosynthesis

Ambient electrocatalytic nitrogen fixation is an emerging technology for green ammonia synthesis,but the absence of optimized,stable and performant catalysts can render its practical application challenging.Herein,bimetallic NiCo boride nanoparticles confined in MXene are shown to accomplish highperformance nitrogen reduction electrolysis.Ta king advantage of the synergistic effect in specific compositions with unique electronic d and p orbits and typical architecture of rich nanosized particles embedded in the interconnected conductive network,the synthesized MXene@NiCoB composite demonstrates extensive improvements in nitrogen molecule chemisorption,active area exposure and charge transport.As a result,optimal NH3 yield rate of 38.7μg h^(-1) mgcat^(-1).and Faradaic efficiency of 6.92%are acquired in0.1 M Na_(2)SO_(4) electrolyte.Moreover,the great catalytic performance can be almost entirely maintained in the cases of repeatedly-cycled and long-term electrolysis.Theoretical investigations reveal that the nitrogen reduction reaction on MXene@NiCoB catalyst proceeds according to the distal pathway,with a distinctly-reduced energy barrier relative to the Co2B counterpart.This work may inspire a new route towards the rational catalyst design for the nitrogen reduction reaction.

Recent development of catalytic strategies for sustainable ammonia production

Presently,ammonia is an ideal candidate for future clean energy.The Haber-Bosch process has been an essential ammonia production process,and it is one of the most important technological advancements since its invention,sustaining the explosive growth of military munitions industry and fertilizers in the first half of the 20th century.However,the process is facing great challenges:the growing need for ammonia and the demands of environmental protection.High energy consumption and high CO_(2) emissions greatly limit the application of the Haber-Bosch method,and increasing research efforts are devoted to"green"ammonia synthesis.Thermocatalytic,electrocatalytic,and photocatalytic ammonia production under mild conditions and the derived chemical looping and plasma ammonia production methods,have been widely developed.Electrocatalytic and photocatalytic methods,which use low fossil fuels,are naturally being considered as future directions for the development of ammonia production.Although their catalytic efficiency of ammonia generation is not yet sufficient to satisfy the actual demands,considerable progress has been made in terms of regulating structure and morphology of catalyst and improving preparation efficiency.The chemical looping approach of ammonia production differs from the thermocatalytic,electrocatalytic,and photocatalytic methods,and is the method of reusing raw materials.The plasma treatment approach alters the overall ammonia production approach and builds up a new avenue of development in combination with thermal,photocatalytic,and electrocatalytic methods as well.This review discusses several recent effective catalysts for different ammonia production methods and explores mechanisms as well as efficiency of these catalysts for catalytic N2fixation of ammonia.

Ammonia borane-enabled hydrogen transfer processes:Insights into catalytic strategies and mechanisms

Transfer hydrogenation(TH) with in situ generated hydrogen donor is of great importance in reduction reactions, and an alternative strategy to traditional hydrogenation processes involving pressurized molecular hydrogen. Ammonia borane(NH3BH3, AB) is a promising material of hydrogen storage, and it has attracted much attention in reductive organic transformations owing to its high activity, good atom economy, nontoxicity, sustainability, and ease of transport and storage. This review focuses on summarizing the recent progress of AB-mediated TH reactions of diverse substrates including nitro compounds, nitriles, imines, alkenes, alkynes, carbonyl compounds(ketones and aldehydes), carbon dioxide,and N-and O-heterocycles. Syntheses protocols(metal-containing and metal-free), the effect of reaction parameters, product distribution, and variation of reactivity are surveyed, and the mechanism of each reaction involving the action mode of AB as well as structure-activity relationships is discussed in detail. Finally, perspectives are presented to highlight the challenges and opportunities for AB-enabled TH reactions of unsaturated compounds.

High-throughput mechanistic study of highly selective hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks for electrochemical nitrate reduction to ammonia

Hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks(HOFs),an emerging porous macrocyclic materials linked by hydrogen-bond,hold potential for gas separation and storage,sensors,optical,and electrocatalysts.Here,HOF-based electrocatalysts are rationally developed for nitrates reduction to ammonia,allowing not only to regulate wastewater pollution but also to accomplish carbon-neutral ammonia(NH_(3))synthesis.We preform high-throughput computational screening of thirty-six HOFs with various metals as active sites,denoted as HOF-M1,for nitrate reduction reaction(NO_(3)RR)toward NH_(3).We have implemented a hierarchical four-step screening strategy,and ultimately,HOF-Ti1 was selected based on its exceptional catalytic activity and selectivity in the NO_(3)RR process.Through additional analysis,we discovered that the d band center of the active metal sites serves as an effective parameter for designing and predicting the performance of HOFs in NO_(3)RR.This research not only showcases the immense potential of electrocatalysis in transforming NO_(3)RR into NH_(3)but also provides researchers with a compelling incentive to undertake further experimental investigations.

Zeolite-mediated hybrid Cu^(+)/Cu~0 interface for electrochemical nitrate reduction to ammonia

The electrocatalytic conversion of reactive nitrogen species to ammonia is a promising strategy for efficient NH_(3) synthesis.In this study,we reveal that the hybrid Cu^(+)/Cu~0 interface is catalytically active for electrochemical ammonia synthesis from nitrate reduction.To maintain the hybrid Cu^(+)/Cu~0 state at negative reaction potentials,hydrophilic zeolite is used to modify Cu/Cu_(2)O electrocatalyst,which demonstrates an impressive NH_(3) production rate of 41.65 mg h^(-1) cm^(-2)with ~100% Faradaic efficiency of ammonia synthesis at-0.6 V vs.RHE.In-situ Raman spectroscopy unveil the high activity originates from the zeolite reconstruction at the electrode–electrolyte interface,which protects the valence state of Cu~0/Cu^(+) site under negative potential and promotes electrochemical activity towards NH_(3) synthesis.

Enhancing ammonia production rates from electrochemical nitrogen reduction by engineering three-phase boundary with phosphorus-activated Cu catalysts

Electrochemical N_(2) reduction reaction(eNRR) over Cu-based catalysts suffers from an intrinsically low activity of Cu for activation of stable N_(2) molecules and the limited supply of N_(2) to the catalyst due to its low solubility in aqueous electrolytes.Herein,we propose phosphorus-activated Cu electrocatalysts to generate electron-deficient Cu sites on the catalyst surface to promote the adsorption of N_(2) molecules.The eNRR system is further modified using a gas diffusion electrode(GDE) coated with polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE) to form an effective three-phase boundary of liquid water-gas N_(2)-solid catalyst to facilitate easy access of N_(2) to the catalytic sites.As a result,the new catalyst in the flow-type cell records a Faradaic efficiency of 13.15% and an NH_(3) production rate of 7.69 μg h^(-1) cm^(-2) at-0.2 V_(RHE),which represent 3.56 and 59.2 times increases from those obtained with a pristine Cu electrode in a typical electrolytic cell.This work represents a successful demonstration of dual modification strategies;catalyst modification and N_(2) supplying system engineering,and the results would provide a useful platform for further developments of electrocatalysts and reaction systems.

Recent progress and challenges in structural construction strategy of metal-based catalysts for nitrate electroreduction to ammonia

Ammonia plays an essential role in human production and life as a raw material for chemical fertilizers.The nitrate electroreduction to ammonia reaction(NO_(3)RR)has garnered attention due to its advantages over the Haber-Bosch process and electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction.Therefore,it represents a promising approach to safeguard the ecological environment by enabling the cycling of nitrogen species.This review begins by discussing the theoretical insights of the NO_(3)RR.It then summarizes recent advances in catalyst design and construction strategies,including alloying,structure engineering,surface engineering,and heterostructure engineering.Finally,the challenges and prospects in this field are presented.This review aims to guide for enhancing the efficiency of electrocatalysts in the NO_(3)RR,and offers insights for converting NO_(3)-to NH_(3).

系统中水含量对锂介导合成氨的性能影响

针对锂介导合成氨(LM-NRR)过程中存在的水污染问题,通过对比实验及扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、X射线衍射仪(XRD)、X射线光电子能谱仪(XPS)等表征手段,探讨了含水量对LM-NRR体系的性能影响及其在反应界面中的作用机理。结果表明,无水条件下的LM-NRR体系具有较好的氨合成性能,在反应时间为120 min、N2流速为4 m L·min^(-1)、电流密度为3 m A·cm^(-2)条件下的氨合成速率可达0.0124μg·s^(-1)·cm^(-2),法拉第效率为7.05%。含水量对LM-NRR体系的影响显著,会极大地降低体系的氨合成速率及法拉第效率。这主要是由于反应界面上的水会加剧竞争性析氢反应(HER)、促进电解质中Li BF_(4)的水解以及钝化表面活性锂位点,进而降低了体系的氨反应活性。

生物乙醇制高级醇催化剂研究进展

与乙醇相比,高级醇具有高的十六烷值、高能量密度、对发动机部件无腐蚀性、与水不混溶、稳定性好等直接作为燃料或燃料添加剂的优势,将发酵产生的生物乙醇转化为更有价值的高级醇受到了广泛关注。本工作综述了近年来世界各国有关生物乙醇制高级醇的研究进展,包括金属氧化物、羟基磷灰石(HAP)和负载型金属催化剂的研究开发现状,并比较了不同类型催化剂参与下的乙醇转化率和高级醇选择性,结合乙醇经缩合反应制备高级醇的机理进行了讨论,最后对当前生物乙醇制高级醇的挑战以及未来研究趋势进行了总结与展望,指出多功能催化剂的开发是未来研究重点,羟醛缩合是进一步提高生物乙醇制高级醇转化率与选择性的有效策略。

化学链合成氨中载氮体的设计与应用研究进展

氨不仅是氮肥生产的主要原料,也是可再生能源储存与转化过程中的能源载体之一。因此,开发温和条件下的合成氨技术是近年来重要的研究课题。化学链合成氨技术通过载氮体的传递作用,将合成氨反应解耦为固氮与释氨等多步反应,具有操作简便、反应温和、能耗低等优点。载氮体作为化学链合成氨的关键,起到传递能量及氮物种的作用,目前,载氮体固氮效率低,极大地限制了化学链合成氨技术的发展。基于此,本工作对化学链合成氨中载氮体的设计与应用研究进行综述。首先,对载氮体的设计理论进行了归纳与总结;其次,介绍了载氮体的研究现状,重点对如何提高载氮体的产氨速率以及如何提升晶格氮利用率等问题进行了综述;最后,对化学链合成氨技术所面临的机遇与挑战进行了研究,为今后载氮体的设计与开发提供了参考依据。

草鱼nrf1基因的克隆与表达及其应激响应研究

为研究跨膜转录因子核因子E2相关因子1(Nuclear factor-erythroid 2 related factor 1,nrf1)在动物机体抗氧化应激过程中的作用,通过同源克隆获得草鱼nrf1基因序列,其开放阅读框为1560 bp,编码519个氨基酸;系统进化树分析表明草鱼nrf1与团头鲂(Megalobrama amblycephala)进化关系较近。对nrf1进行组织表达分析,结果显示nrf1在肝脏中表达水平最高,其次是心脏和肠道(P<0.05)。昼夜节律分析显示,在9:00时nrf1表达水平最高且显著高于3:00、12:00、18:00、21:00和24:00(P<0.05)。经急性氨氮胁迫处理24h和48h时,发现草鱼nrf1基因在低氨氮(5 mg/L)组和高氨氮(20 mg/L)组中表达量相对于对照组均显著升高(P<0.05);且低氨氮组nrf1表达量在24h时显著低于高氨氮组(P<0.05),而在48h时显著高于高氨氮组(P<0.05)。此外,研究使用3种不同蛋白源(鱼粉、菜粕和豆粕)饲料对草鱼进行生长实验,发现在养殖后14d、28d和35d,菜粕和豆粕组nrf1表达水平显著高于鱼粉组(P<0.05),其中28d时豆粕组nrf1表达量显著高于菜粕组(P<0.05)。综上所述,草鱼nrf1基因表达具有组织特异性,且受到水体氨氮浓度和饲料蛋白源的调控,研究为揭示鱼类nrf1基因的分子特征及其抗氧化应激反应中的功能奠定了理论基础。