Experimental Research of Force Feedback Dataglove Based on Pneumatic Artificial Muscle

Force feedback dataglove is an important interface of human-machine interaction between manipulator and virtual assembly system, which is in charge of the bidirectional transmission of movement and force information between computer and operator. The exoskeleton force feedback dataglove is designed taking the pneumatic artificial muscle as actuator, meanwhile, its structure and work principle are introduced, and the force control problem is analyzed and researched by experiment. The mathematic model of grasping rigid object for finger is established. Considering the friction of tendon-sheath system and finger deformation, the closed-loop force control for a single joint, a single finger and multi-fingers are studied respectively by the feedforward proportional-integral（PI） control method with variable arguments. On the premise of the force smoothness, the control error of the force exerted on the finger joint is in the range of ±0.25 N, which meets the requirement of force feedback. By experimental analysis, the reason of force fluctuation is that the finger joint has a small amplitude quiver, and the consistent change tendency of the force between proximal interphalangeal（PIP） joint and distal interphalangeal（DIP） joint results from their angle coupling relationship.

MODEL IMPROVEMENT AND EXPERIMENT VALIDATION OF PNEUMATIC ARTIFICIAL MUSCLES

According to the deficiency of the present model of pneumatic artificialmuscles (PAM), a serial model is built up based on the PAM's essential working principle with theelastic theory, it is validated by the quasi-static and dynamic experiment results, which are gainedfrom two experiment systems. The experiment results and the simulation results illustrate that theserial model has made a great success compared with Chou's model, which can describe the forcecharacteristics of PAM more precisely. A compensation item considering the braid's elasticity andthe coulomb damp is attached to the serial model based on the analysis of the experiment results.The dynamic experiment proves that the viscous damp of the PAM could be ignored in order to simplifythe model of PAM. Finally, an improved serial model of PAM is obtained.

FORCE FEEDBACK DATAGLOVE BASED ON PNEUMATIC ARTIFICIAL MUSCLES

An exoskeleton force feedback dataglove is developed, which uses the pneumatic artificial muscles as actuators. On the basis of the simplified hand model, the motion equation is deduced according to the theory of Denavit-Hartenberg. The model of the equivalent contact forces exerted by the object on the finger is proposed. By the principle of virtual work, the static equilibrium of finger is established. The force Jacobian matrix of finger is calculated, and then the joint torques of the finger when grasping objects are obtained. The theory and structure of the force feedback datagolve are introduced. Based on the theory of motion stabilization of four-bar linkage, the flexion angles of joints are measured. The torques on finger joints caused by the output forces of pneumatic artificial muscles are calculated. The output forces of pneumatic artificial muscle, whose values are controlled by its inner pressure, can be calculated by the joint torques of the finger when grasping objects. The arms of force, driving torques and the needed output forces of pneumatic muscle are calculated for each joint of the index finger. The criterion of output force of pneumatic muscle is given.

Active Force with Fuzzy Logic Control of a Two-Link Arm Driven by Pneumatic Artificial Muscles

In this paper, the practicality and feasibility of Active Force Control （AFC） integrated with Fuzzy Logic（AFCAFL） applied to a two link planar arm actuated by a pair of Pneumatic Artificial Muscle （PAM） is investigated. The study emphasizes on the application and control of PAM actuators which may be considered as the new generation of actuators comprising fluidic muscle that has high-tension force, high power to weight ratio and high strength in spite of its drawbacks in the form of high nonlinearity behaviour, high hysteresis and time varying parameters. Fuzzy Logic （FL） is used as a technique to estimate the best value of the inertia matrix of robot arm essential for the AFC mechanism that is complemented with a conventional Propor- tional-Integral-Derivative （PID） control at the outermost loop. A simulation study was first performed followed by an experi- mental investigation for validation. The experimental study was based on the independent joint tracking control and coordinated motion control of the arm in Cartesian or task space. In the former, the PAM actuated arm is commanded to track the prescribed trajectories due to harmonic excitations at the joints for a given frequency, whereas for the latter, two sets of trajectories with different loadings were considered. A practical rig utilizing a Hardware-In-The-Loop Simulation （HILS） configuration was developed and a number of experiments were carried out. The results of the experiment and the simulation works were in good agreement, which verified the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed AFCAFL scheme actuated by PAM.

Design and test of pneumatic artificial muscle driven variable trailing-edge camber wing

A variable camber wing driven by pneumatic artificial muscles is developed in this paper. Firstly, the experimental setup to measure the static output force of pneumatic artificial muscle is designed and the relationship between the static output force and the air pressure is investigated. Experimental results show that the static output force of pneumatic artificial muscle decreases nonlinearly with the increase of contraction ratio. Secondly, the model of variable camber wing driven by pneumatic artificial muscles is manufactured to validate the variable camber concept. Finally, wind tunnel tests are conducted in the low speed wind tunnel. It is found that the wing camber increases with the increase of air pressure. When the air pressure of PAMs is 0.4 MPa and 0.5 MPa, the tip displacement of the trailing-edge is 3 mm and 5 mm, respectively. The lift of aerofoil with flexible trailing-edge increases by 87% at AOA of 5°.

NONLINEAR MODELING AND CONTROLLING OF ARTIFICIAL MUSCLE SYSTEM USING NEURAL NETWORKS

The pneumatic artificial muscles are widely used in the fields of medicalrobots, etc. Neural networks are applied to modeling and controlling of artificial muscle system. Asingle-joint artificial muscle test system is designed. The recursive prediction error (RPE)algorithm which yields faster convergence than back propagation (BP) algorithm is applied to trainthe neural networks. The realization of RPE algorithm is given. The difference of modeling ofartificial muscles using neural networks with different input nodes and different hidden layer nodesis discussed. On this basis the nonlinear control scheme using neural networks for artificialmuscle system has been introduced. The experimental results show that the nonlinear control schemeyields faster response and higher control accuracy than the traditional linear control scheme.

Joint position control of bionic jumping leg driven by pneumatic artificial muscle

The bionic legs are generally driven by motors which have the disadvantages of large size and heavy weight.In contrast,the bionic legs driven by pneumatic artificial muscles(PAMs)have the advantages of light weight,good bionics and flexibility.A kind of bionic leg driven by PAMs is designed.The proportional-integral-derivative(PID)algorithm and radial basis function neural network(RBFNN)algorithm are combined to design RBFNN-PID controller,and a low-pass filter is added to the control system,which can effectively improve the jitter phenomenon of the joint during the experiment.It is verified by simulation that the RBFNN-PID algorithm is better than traditional PID algorithm,the response time of joint is improved from 0.15 s to 0.07 s,and the precision of joint position control is improved from 0.75°to 0.001°.The experimental results show that the amplitude of the change in error is reduced from 0.5°to 0.2°.It is verified by jumping experiment that the mechanism can realize jumping action under control,and can achieve the horizontal displacement of 500 mm and the vertical displacement of 250 mm.

Review on ultra-lightweight flapping-wing nano air vehicles:Artificial muscles,flight control mechanism,and biomimetic wings

Flying insects are capable of flapping their wings to provide the required power and control forces for flight.A coordinated organizational system including muscles,wings,and control architecture plays a significant role,which provides the sources of inspiration for designing flapping-wing vehicles.In recent years,due to the development of micro-and meso-scale manufacturing technologies,advances in components technologies have directly led to a progress of smaller Flapping-Wing Nano Air Vehicles(FWNAVs)around gram and sub-gram scales,and these air vehicles have gradually acquired insect-like locomotive strategies and capabilities.This paper will present a selective review of components technologies for ultra-lightweight flapping-wing nano air vehicles under 3 g,which covers the novel propulsion methods such as artificial muscles,flight control mechanisms,and the design paradigms of the insect-inspired wings,with a special focus on the development of the driving technologies based on artificial muscles and the progress of the biomimetic wings.The challenges involved in constructing such small flapping-wing air vehicles and recommendations for several possible future directions in terms of component technology enhancements and overall vehicle performance are also discussed in this paper.This review will provide the essential guidelines and the insights for designing a flapping-wing nano air vehicle with higher performance.

Dual-Ion Co-Regulation System Enabling High-Performance Electrochemical Artificial Yarn Muscles with Energy-Free Catch States

Artificial yarn muscles show great potential in applications requiring low-energy consumption while maintaining high performance. However, conventional designs have been limited by weak ion-yarn muscle interactions and inefficient “rocking-chair” ion migration. To address these limitations, we present an electrochemical artificial yarn muscle design driven by a dual-ion co-regulation system. By utilizing two reaction channels, this system shortens ion migration pathways, leading to faster and more efficient actuation. During the charging/discharging process, PF_6~- ions react with carbon nanotube yarn, while Li~+ ions react with an Al foil. The intercalation reaction between PF_6~- and collapsed carbon nanotubes allows the yarn muscle to achieve an energy-free high-tension catch state. The dual-ion coordinated yarn muscles exhibit superior contractile stroke, maximum contractile rate, and maximum power densities, exceeding those of “rocking-chair” type ion migration yarn muscles. The dual-ion co-regulation system enhances the ion migration rate during actuation, resulting in improved performance. Moreover, the yarn muscles can withstand high levels of isometric stress, displaying a stress of 61 times that of skeletal muscles and 8 times that of “rocking-chair” type yarn muscles at higher frequencies. This technology holds significant potential for various applications, including prosthetics and robotics.

Dielectric elastomer artificial muscle materials advancement and soft robotic applications

Conventional robotic systems are built with rigid materials to deal with large forces and predetermined processes.Soft robotics,however,is an emerging field seeking to develop adaptable robots that can perform tasks in unpredictable environments and biocompatible devices that close the gap between humans and machines.Dielectric elastomers(DEs)have emerged as a soft actuation technology that imitates the properties and performance of natural muscles,making them an attractive material choice for soft robotics.However,conventional DE materials suffer from electromechanical instability(EMI),which reduces their performance and limits their applications in soft robotics.This review discusses key innovations in DE artificial muscles from a material standpoint,followed by a survey on their representative demonstrations of soft robotics.Specifically,we introduce modifications of DE materials that enable large strains,fast responses,and high energy densities by suppressing EMI.Additionally,we examine materials that allow variable stiffness and self‐healing abilities in DE actuators.Finally,we review dielectric elastomer actuator(DEA)applications in soft robotics in four categories,including automation,manipulation,locomotion,and human interaction.

A Soft Robotic Fish Actuated by Artificial Muscle Modules(SoRoFAAM-1)

In this paper,we present the design,fabrication,locomotion and bionic analysis of a Soft Robotic Fish Actuated by Artificial Muscle(SoRoFAAM).As a carangiform swimmer,the most important part of SoRoFAAM-1,on the motion point of view,is its tail designed around a bidirectional flexible bending actuator by layered bonding technology.This actuator is made of two artificial muscle modules based on Shape Memory Alloy(SMA)wires.Each artificial muscle module has four independent SMA-wire channels and is therefore capable of producing four different actuations.This design allows us to implement an adaptive regulated control strategy based on resistance feedback of the SMA wires to prevent them from overheating.To improve the actuation frequency to 2 Hz and the heat-dissipation ratio by 60%,we developed a round-robin heating strategy.Furthermore,the thermomechanical model of actuator is built,and the thermal transformation is analysed.The relationships between the actuation parameters and SoRoFAAM-1’s kinematic parameters are analysed.The versatility of the actuator endows SoRoFAAM-1 with cruise straight and turning abilities.Moreover,SoRoFAAM-1 has a good bionic fidelity;in particular,a maneuverability of 0.15,a head swing factor of 0.38 and a Strouhal number of 0.61.

Thermally driven carbon nanotube@polycaprolactone coaxial artificial muscle fibers working in subzero environments

Artificial muscle fibers driven electrothermally with excellent properties of response,stroke,and work capacity are expected to serve in some intelligent structures and systems.However,muscle fibers that operate in subzero environments are highly needed in industrial production and aerospace applications but remain challenging.Herein,we reported a coaxial artificial muscle fiber by electrospinning a sheath of polycaprolactone(PCL)nanofibers on the surface of a carbon nanotube(CNT)fiber core,achieving the actuation in response to thermal at subzero temperatures.The CNT@PCL coaxial muscle fiber under 0.3 MPa achieved a maximum contractile stroke of~18%as the temperature changed from−130℃ to 45℃.The actuation mechanism at subzero temperatures of this muscle fiber was analyzed in combination with the temperature-deformation schematic curve of different polymers.Furthermore,a temperature sensor based on this muscle fiber was developed,due to the excellent linear relationship between the contraction and temperature.A 3D-printed prosthetic arm was designed to further exhibit the application demonstrations of this muscle fiber in subzero environments.This work provides new insights into artificial muscle fibers for serving in extreme environments with ultralow temperatures.

Development of Bio-cultured Artificial Muscles with High Design Flexibility

Recent advances in bionics have made it possible to create various tissue and organs.Using this cell culture technology,engineers have developed a robot driven by three-dimensional cultured muscle cells(bioactuator)—a muscle cell robot.For more applications,researchers have been developed various tissues and organs with bio3D printer.However,three-dimensional cultured muscle cells printed by bio3D printer have been not used for muscle cell robot yet.The aim of our study is to develop easy fabrication method of bioactuator having high design flexibility like as bio3D printer.We fabricated three-dimensional cultured muscle cells using mold and dish having pin which can contribute to shape and cell alignment.In this study,we observed that our method maintained the shape of three-dimensional cultured muscle cells and caused cell alignment which is important for bioactuator development.We named three-dimensional cultured muscle cells developed in this study“bio-cultured artificial muscle(BiCAM)”.Finally,we observed that BiCAM contracted in response to electrical stimulus.From these data,we concluded our proposed method is easy fabrication method of bioactuator having high design flexibility.

A Hollow Polyethylene Fiber-Based Artificial Muscle

Recently,researches on artificial muscles for imitating the functions of the natural muscles has attracted wide attention.The fiber-shape actuators,shape-memory materials or deforming devices,which are similar to human muscle fiber bundles,have extensively studied and provided more possibilities for artificial muscles.Herein,we develop a thermal responsible fiber-shaped actuator based on the low-cost hollow polyethylene fiber.The sheath-core structured fibrous actuators and the stainless-steel conductive yarn winded pre-stretched polyethylene actuators are fabricated with the heating assisted pre-stretching procedure.The actuation mechanism of the thermal-responsive orientation change of molecular chains driving the actuation is discussed and demonstrated by 2D XRD patterns.These polyethylene-based fibrous actuators displayed three significant advantages including(i)color-turning and shape-changing bifunctional response,(ii)direct joule heating actuation and(iii)effective contraction(18%shrinkage of the pristine length)and lifting ability(the ratio of lifting weight to self-weight is up to 50).

A method for the length-pressure hysteresis modeling of pneumatic artificial muscles

This paper presents a method for the length-pressure hysteresis modeling of pneumatic artificial muscles(PAMs)by using a modified generalized Prandtl-Ishlinskii(GPI)model.Different from the approaches for establishing the GPI models by replacing the linear envelope functions of operators with hyperbolic tangent and exponential envelop functions,the proposed model is derived by modifying the envelope functions of operators into arc tangent functions,which shows an improvement in the modeling accuracy.The effectiveness of the proposed model is verified by the experimental data of a PAM.Furthermore,its capacity in capturing the hysteresis relationship between length and pressure is testified by giving different input pressure signals.With regard to the computational efficiency,the influence of the number of operators on the modeling accuracy is discussed.Furthermore,the inversion of the GPI model is derived.Its capability of compensating the hysteresis nonlinearities is confirmed via the simulation and experimental study.

Bio-inspired robotic manta ray powered by ionic polymer-metal composite artificial muscles

The manta ray(Manta birostris)is the largest species of rays that demonstrates excellent swimming capabilities via large-amplitude flapping of its pectoral fins.In this article,we present a bio-inspired robotic manta ray using ionic polymer–metal composite(IPMC)as artificial muscles to mimic the swimming behavior of the manta ray.The robot utilizes two artificial pectoral fins to generate undulatory flapping motions,which produce thrust for the robot.Each pectoral fin consists of an IPMC muscle in the leading edge and a passive polydimethylsiloxane membrane in the trailing edge.When the IPMC is actuated,the passive polydimethylsiloxane membrane follows the bending of the leading edge with a phase delay,which leads to an undulatory flapping motion on the fin.Characterization of the pectoral fin has shown that the fin can generate flapping motions with up to 100%tip deflection and 40◦twist angle.To test the free-swimming performance of the robot,a light and compact on-board control unit with a lithium ion polymer battery has been developed.The experimental results have shown that the robot can swim at 0.067 BL/s with portable power consumption of under 2.5 W.

Fluid-driven artificialmuscles: bio-design, manufacturing, sensing, control, and applications

Developing artificial muscles that can replace biological muscles to accomplish various tasks iswhat we have long been aiming for.Recent advances in flexible materials and 3D printing technology greatly promote the development of artificial muscle technology.A variety of flexible material-based artificial muscles that are driven by different external stimuli,including pressure,voltage,light,magnetism,temperature,etc.,have been developed.Among these,fluid-driven artificial muscles(FAMs),which can convert the power of fluid(gas or liquid)into the force output and displacement of flexible materials,are the most widely used actuation methods for industrial robots,medical instruments,and human-assisted devices due to their simplicity,excellent safety,large actuation force,high energy efficiency,and low cost.Herein,the bio-design,manufacturing,sensing,control,and applications of FAMs are introduced,including conventional pneumatic/hydraulic artificial muscles and several innovative artificial muscles driven by functional fluids.What’s more,the challenges and future directions of FAMs are discussed.

Review on Improvement,Modeling,and Application of Ionic Polymer Metal Composite Artificial Muscle

Recently,researchers have concentrated on studying ionic polymer metal composite(IPMC)artificial muscle,which has numerous advantages including a relatively large strain under low input voltage,flexibility,high response,low noise,light weight,and high driving energy density.This paper reports recent developments in IPMC artificial muscle,including improvement methods,modeling,and applications.Different types of IPMCs are described,along with various methods for overcoming some shortcomings,including improvement of Nafion matrix membranes,surface preparation of Nafion membranes,the choice of high-performing electrodes,and new electro-active polymers for enhancing the properties of IPMCs.IPMC models are also reviewed,providing theoretical guidance for studying the performance and applications of IPMCs.Successful applications such as bio-inspired robots,opto-mechatronic systems,and medical engineering are discussed.

Re-engineering artificial muscle with microhydraulics

We introduce a new type of actuator,the microhydraulic stepping actuator(MSA),which borrows design and operational concepts from biological muscle and stepper motors.MSAs offer a unique combination of power,efficiency,and scalability not easily achievable on the microscale.The actuator works by integrating surface tension forces produced by electrowetting acting on scaled droplets along the length of a thin ribbon.Like muscle,MSAs have liquid and solid functional components and can displace a large fraction of their length.The 100μm pitch MSA presented here already has an output power density of over 200 W kg^(−1),rivaling the most powerful biological muscles,due to the scaling of surface tension forces,MSA’s power density grows quadratically as its dimensions are reduced.

Design,Characterization and Optimization of Multi-directional Bending Pneumatic Artificial Muscles

Bending Pneumatic Artificial Muscles(PAMs)are particularly attractive and extensively applied to the soft grasper,snake-like robot,etc.To extend the application of PAMs,we fabricate a Multi-directional Bending Pneumatic Artificial Muscle(MBPAM)that can bend in eight directions by changing the pressurized chambers.The maximum bending angle and output force are 151°and 0.643 N under the pressure of 100 kPa,respectively.Additionally,the Finite Element Model(FEM)is established to further investigate the performance.The experimental and numerical results demonstrate the nonlinear relationship between the pressure and the bending angle and output force.Moreover,the effects of parameters on the performance are studied with the validated FEM.The results reveal that the amplitude of waves and the thickness of the base layer can be optimized.Thus,multi-objective optimization is performed to improve the bending performance of the MBPAM.The optimization results indicate that the output force can be increased by 7.8%with the identical bending angle of the initial design,while the bending angle can be improved by 8.6%with the same output force.Finally,the grasp tests demonstrate the grip capability of the soft four-finger gripper and display the application prospect of the MBPAM in soft robots.