Application of the Attenuation Correction Technology in C-band Radar Precipitation Estimation

[ Objective] The research aimed to study application of the attenuation correction technology in C-band radar precipitation estimation. [ Method~ Based on CINRAD-CB radar data in Shaanxi, we conducted the attenuation correction experiment by using iteration method and Kufa method respectively. Moreover, we conducted application expedment of the Kufa attenuation correction method in the quantitative precipitation esti- mation. [ Result~ Attenuation correction technology could compensate for attenuation problem of the echo at the distant range. Calculation result of the iteration method finally tended to that of the Kufa method. Moreover, iteration method spent more time. Therefore, Kufa attenuation correction technology was more suitable for business operation. When strong echo was near radar, generated attenuation was more obvious, and application value of the attenuation correction was bigger. Attenuation correction technology was used for quantitative precipitation estimation, which was favor- able for improving accuracy of the precipitation estimation. But we should conduct detailed planning on calculation scheme of the precipitation esti- mation because that different calculation schemes had great influences on accuracy of the quantitative precipitation estimation. [ Cendusien] This research provided a basis for improving accuracy of the quantitative precipitation estimation in Shaanxi. Key words Attenuation correction

Study of Different Attenuation Correction Methods in Association with Rainfall Estimation for X-Band Polarimetric Radars

Different attenuation correction methods for the X-band dual linear polarimetric radar are analyzed in this paper.The specific differential phase shift KDP is always considered as an effective factor in radar signal attenuation correction.However,the values of KDP for light rains are too small,which results in unstable quality and large errors of rainfall estimation.Therefore,radar horizontal reflectivity ZH and specific differential phase shift are combined together in the ZH-KDP method to correct the attenuation error.Based on the similar consideration,a ZH-KDP-R combined technique is also proposed to estimate rainfall（R）.During the development and set-up of the synchronous transmitting and receiving dual polaximetric Doppler weather radar with 3.2 cm wave length,a set of observational data were obtained in the field experiment in Pingliang,Gansu Province in August 2005.Some continuous measurements with 5-12-minute intervals were gained in the time period from 1508 to 2205（Beijing Time）11 August 2005.Using the data,the performance of the combined attenuation correction and rainfall estimation methods is examined.The results indicate that the ZH-KDP combined method is effective and the correction speed meets the requirement of real-time operations.The analysis of the precipitation process shows that the ZH-KDP-R combined technique is more suitable for rainfall estimation than single factor methods such as the KDP-R or Z-R relation,and the estimated results are in good agreement with automatic rain gauge records.As to the Z-R relation,the deviation between the precipitation estimation and the available gauge measurement decreases obviously when the corrected ZH is used,indicating that the radar data quality has been obviously improved after the attenuation correction.

Attenuation correction technique for fluorescence analysis of biological tissues with significantly different optical properties

During intraoperative fluorescence navigation to remove various neoplasms and during pharmacokinetic studies of photosensitizers in laboratory animals,in many cases,the ratio of photosensitizer accumulation in the tumor and normal tissue can reach>10-fold,which inevitably changes their optical properties.At the same time,the tumor formation process causes various metabolic and structural changes at cellular and tissue levels,which lead to changes in optical properties.A hardwaresoftware complex for the spectral-fluorescence studies of the content of fluorochromes in biological tissues with significantly different optical properties was developed,and it was tested on optical phantoms with various concentrations of photosensitizers,absorbers,and scatterers.To correct the influence of optical properties on the photosensitizer concentration analysis by fluorescence spectroscopy,we propose the spectrum-processing algorithm,which combines empirical and theory-based approaches.

Attenuation correction with region growing method used in the positron emission mammography imaging system

The Positron Emission Mammography imaging system （PEMi） provides a novel nuclear diagnosis method dedicated for breast imaging. With a better resolution than whole body PET, PEMi can detect millimeter-sized breast tumors. To address the requirement of semi-quantitative analysis with a radiotracer concentration map of the breast, a new attenuation correction method based on a three-dimensional seeded region growing image segmentation （3DSRG-AC） method has been developed. The method gives a 3D connected region as the segmentation result instead of image slices. The continuity property of the segmentation result makes this new method free of activity variation of breast tissues. The threshold value chosen is the key process for the segmentation method. The first valley ill the grey level histogram of the reconstruction image is set as the lower threshold, which works well in clinical application. Results show that attenuation correction for PEMi improves the image quality and the quantitative accuracy of radioactivity distribution determination. Attenuation correction also improves the probability of detecting small and early breast tumors.

Attenuation correction of L-shell X-ray fluorescence computed tomography imaging

X-ray Fluorescence Computed Tomography （XFCT） is a widely-used experimental technique for inves- tigating the spatial distribution of elements in a sample. However, image reconstruction for this technique is more difficult than for transmission tomography, one problem being self-absorption. In this work, we make use of known quantities and unknown density of elements of interest to express unknown attenuation maps. The attenuation maps are added to the contribution value of the pixel in the Maximum Likelihood Expectation Maximization （MLEM） reconstruction method. Results indicate that the relative error is less than 14.1%, which shows that this method can effectively correct L-shell XFCT.

Attenuation correction for dedicated breast PET using only emission data based on consistency conditions

Accurate attenuation correction is required in dedicated breast PET imaging systems for image artifact removal and quantitative studies. In this study, a method using only emission data based on consistency conditions is proposed for attenuation correction in breast PET imaging systems. The consistency conditions are exploited to evaluate the accuracy of the estimated attenuation distribution and find the appropriate parameters that yield the most consistent attenuation distribution with the measured emission data. We have proved the validity of the method with experimental investigations and single-patient studies using a dedicated breast PET. The results show that the method is capable of accurately estimating the attenuation distribution of a uniform attenuator from the experimental data with various relatively low activities. The results also show that in single-patient studies, the method is robust for the irregular boundary of breast tissue and provides a distinct improvement in image quality.

ACCURATE ATTENUATION CORRECTION FOR ALGEBRAIC RECONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE IN SPECT

We present a new iterative reconstruction algorithm to improve the algebraic reconstruction technique （ART） for the Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography. Our method is a generalization of the Kaczmarz iterative algorithm for solving linear systems of equations and introduces exact and implicit attenuation correction derived from the attenuated Radon transform operator at each step of the algorithm. The performances of the presented algorithm have been tested upon various numerical experiments in presence of both strongly non-uniform attenuation and incomplete measurements data. We also tested the ability of our algorithm to handle moderate noisy data. Simulation studies demonstrate that the proposed method has a significant improvement in the quality of reconstructed images over ART. Moreover, convergence speed was improved and stability was established, facing noisy data, once we incorporate filtration procedure in our algorithm.

A generalized method of converting CT image to PET linear attenuation coefficient distribution in PET/CT imaging

The accuracy of attenuation correction in positron emission tomography scanners depends mainly on deriving the reliable 511-keV linear attenuation coefficient distribution in the scanned objects. In the PET/CT system, the linear attenu- ation distribution is usually obtained from the intensities of the CT image. However, the intensities of the CT image relate to the attenuation of photons in an energy range of 40 keV-140 keV. Before implementing PET attenuation correction, the intensities of CT images must be transformed into the PET 511-keV linear attenuation coefficients. However, the CT scan parameters can affect the effective energy of CT X-ray photons and thus affect the intensities of the CT image. Therefore, for PET/CT attenuation correction, it is crucial to determine the conversion curve with a given set of CT scan parameters and convert the CT image into a PET linear attenuation coefficient distribution. A generalized method is proposed for con- verting a CT image into a PET linear attenuation coefficient distribution. Instead of some parameter-dependent phantom calibration experiments, the conversion curve is calculated directly by employing the consistency conditions to yield the most consistent attenuation map with the measured PET data. The method is evaluated with phantom experiments and small animal experiments. In phantom studies, the estimated conversion curve fits the true attenuation coefficients accurately, and accurate PET attenuation maps are obtained by the estimated conversion curves and provide nearly the same correction results as the true attenuation map. In small animal studies, a more complicated attenuation distribution of the mouse is obtained successfully to remove the attenuation artifact and improve the PET image contrast efficiently.

Pitfalls in Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography Imaging:Causes and Their Classifications

Objective To describe the pitfalls in positron emission tomography/computed tomography （PET/CT） imaging and classify them according to the principles of their generation. Methods We summarized retrospectively the ^18F-fluorodeoxyglucose （FDP） PET/CT imaging pitfalls through reviewing the PET/CT images of 872 patients. The pitfalls were divided into artifacts and infrequent physiological uptake, and the artifacts were further classified according to their causes. Meanwhile, we calculated the incidences of various pitfalls. Whether the PET/CT pitfalls influenced the diagnostic decision was analyzed. The appearances of pitfalls in PET were also described. Results Pitfalls could be found in PET/CT images of 684（78.4%） patients. Artifacts were found in 664 （76.15%） patients, and could be classified into self-factor artifacts and equipment-or technology-related artifacts. Among self-factor artifacts, respiratory motion （57.5%）, postprandial or hyperglycemia artifacts （2.41%）, and metal or high density matter artifacts （1.38%） were frequent. As for equipment-or tectmology-related factors, injection point outleakage or radiotracer contamination （13.88%） and truncation artifacts （1.83%） were most common ones. Infrequent physiological FDG uptakes, including fatty up-take, endometrial uptake, and bilateral breast feeding period uptake, were found in 20 （2.29%） patients. Among all pitfalls, the artifacts in 92 （13.4%） patients and infrequent physiological uptakes in 6 （0.88%） patients affected the diagnostic results. Artifact images in PET could be described as hot or cold area and the images of infrequent physiological uptake were always shown as hot area. Conclusions The incidence of pitfall in PET/CT imaging was high and the causes of pitfalls are various. Among all causes that artifacts generated, respiratory motion is the most common. Some pitfalls may disturb clinical physicians＇ decision, so it is important to recognize artifacts and physiological uptake, and distinguish them from pathological uptakes.

A surface plasmon resonance imaging system for the stimulated living cell analysis

In this paper, a surface plasmon resonance imaging(SPRI) system for cell analysis is developed for obtaining the surface plasmon resonance(SPR) signal from the interactions between cells and different stimuli. The system is constructed with a red laser light source, a P-polarizer, a glass prism, a 5× objective lens, a charge coupled device(CCD) camera, a gold sensor chip, a polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS) reaction well and a mechanical scanning device. The system is applied to mapping living cells in response to stimuli by characterization of the refractive index(RI) changes. Cell responses to K+ in KCl solutions with concentrations of 5 mmol/L, 20 mmol/L, 50 mmol/L and 100 mmol/L are collected, which indicates that the SPRI method can distinguish the concentration of the stimuli. Furthermore, cell responses to epidermal growth factor(EGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor(VEGF) are studied independently. The binding of EGF receptor(EGFR) and EGF is collected as the first signal, and the internal change in cells is recorded as the second signal. The cell response to VEGF is different from that to EGF, which indicates that the SPRI as a label-free, real-time, fast and quantitative method has a potential to distinguish the cell responses to different stimuli.