Flow characteristics and hot workability of a typical low-alloy high-strength steel during multi-pass deformation

Heavy components of low-alloy high-strength(LAHS) steels are generally formed by multi-pass forging. It is necessary to explore the flow characteristics and hot workability of LAHS steels during the multi-pass forging process, which is beneficial to the formulation of actual processing parameters. In the study, the multi-pass hot compression experiments of a typical LAHS steel are carried out at a wide range of deformation temperatures and strain rates. It is found that the work hardening rate of the experimental material depends on deformation parameters and deformation passes, which is ascribed to the impacts of static and dynamic softening behaviors. A new model is established to describe the flow characteristics at various deformation passes. Compared to the classical Arrhenius model and modified Zerilli and Armstrong model, the newly proposed model shows higher prediction accuracy with a confidence level of 0.98565. Furthermore, the connection between power dissipation efficiency(PDE) and deformation parameters is revealed by analyzing the microstructures. The PDE cannot be utilized to reflect the efficiency of energy dissipation for microstructure evolution during the entire deformation process, but only to assess the efficiency of energy dissipation for microstructure evolution in a specific deformation parameter state.As a result, an integrated processing map is proposed to better study the hot workability of the LAHS steel, which considers the effects of instability factor(IF), PDE, and distribution and size of grains. The optimized processing parameters for the multi-pass deformation process are the deformation parameters of 1223–1318 K and 0.01–0.08 s^(-1). Complete dynamic recrystallization occurs within the optimized processing parameters with an average grain size of 18.36–42.3 μm. This study will guide the optimization of the forging process of heavy components.

Recent progress in visualization and digitization of coherent transformation structures and application in high-strength steel

High-strength steels are mainly composed of medium-or low-temperature microstructures,such as bainite or martensite,with coherent transformation characteristics.This type of microstructure has a high density of dislocations and fine crystallographic structural units,which ease the coordinated matching of high strength,toughness,and plasticity.Meanwhile,given its excellent welding perform-ance,high-strength steel has been widely used in major engineering constructions,such as pipelines,ships,and bridges.However,visual-ization and digitization of the effective units of these coherent transformation structures using traditional methods(optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy)is difficult due to their complex morphology.Moreover,the establishment of quantitative relationships with macroscopic mechanical properties and key process parameters presents additional difficulty.This article reviews the latest progress in microstructural visualization and digitization of high-strength steel,with a focus on the application of crystallographic methods in the development of high-strength steel plates and welding.We obtained the crystallographic data(Euler angle)of the transformed microstruc-tures through electron back-scattering diffraction and combined them with the calculation of inverse transformation from bainite or martensite to austenite to determine the reconstruction of high-temperature parent austenite and orientation relationship(OR)during con-tinuous cooling transformation.Furthermore,visualization of crystallographic packets,blocks,and variants based on actual OR and digit-ization of various grain boundaries can be effectively completed to establish quantitative relationships with alloy composition and key process parameters,thereby providing reverse design guidance for the development of high-strength steel.

Kinetics of austenite growth and bainite transformation during reheating and cooling treatments of high strength microalloyed steel produced by sub-rapid solidification

First,strip cast samples of high strength microalloyed steel with sub-rapid solidification characteristics were prepared by simulated strip casting technique.Next,the isothermal growth of austenite grain during the reheating treatment of strip casts was observed in situ through confocal laser scanning microscope(CLSM).The results indicated that the time exponent of grains growth suddenly rise when the isothermal temperature higher than 1000℃.And the activation energy for austenite grain growth were calculated to be 538.0 kJ/mol in the high temperature region(above 1000℃)and 693.2 kJ/mol in the low temperature region(below 1000℃),respectively.Then,the kinetics model of austenite isothermal growth was established,which can predict the austenite grain size during isothermal hold very well.Besides,high density of second phase particles with small size was found during the isothermal hold at the low temperature region,leading to the refinement of austenite grain.After isothermal hold at different temperature for 1800 s,the bainite transformation in microalloyed steel strip was also observed in situ during the continuous cooling process.And growth rates of bainite plates with different nucleation positions and different prior austenite grain size(PAGS)were calculated.It was indicated that the growth rate of the bainite plate is not only related to the nucleation position but also to the PAGS.

Effects of Deformation on Bainite Transformation During Continuous Cooling of Low Carbon Steels

Hot deformation experiments were carried out on Gleeble 1500 thermo-mechanical simulator. The bainite transformation after deformation was investigated by optical microstructure analysis. The results indicated that the deformation accelerated the bainite transformation when the deformation was carried out at high temperature and no or little ferrite was precipitated before bainite transformation; when the deformation was carried out at low temperature, the deformation hindered the bainite transformation because a lot of ferrite precipitated before bainite transformation.

Effect of Chromium on CCT Diagrams of Novel Air-Cooled Bainite Steels Analyzed by Neural Network

The quantitative effects of chromium content on continuous cooling transformation （CCT） diagrams of novel air-cooled bainite steels were analyzed using artificial neural network models. The results showed that the chromium may retard the high and medium-temperature martensite transformation.

Quantitative analysis of Ni effect on CCT diagrams of novel air-cooled bainite steels using artificial neural network models

The quantitative effect of Ni content on continuous cooling transformation （CCT） diagrams of novel air-cooled bainite steels was analyzed using artificial neural network models. The results showed that Ni may retard the high- and medium-temperature transformation and martensite transformation. The results conform to the materials science theories.

Effect of traveling-wave magnetic field on dendrite growth of high-strength steel slab: Industrial trials and numerical simulation

The dendrite growth behavior of high-strength steel during slab continuous casting with a traveling-wave magnetic field was studied in this paper. The morphology of the solidification structure and composition distribution were analyzed. Results showed that the columnar crystals could deflect and break when the traveling-wave magnetic field had low current intensity. With the increase in current intensity, the secondary dendrite arm spacing and solute permeability decreased, and the columnar crystal transformed into an equiaxed crystal. The electromagnetic force caused by the traveling-wave magnetic field changed the temperature gradient and velocity magnitude and promoted the breaking and fusing of dendrites. Dendrite compactness and composition uniformity were arranged in descending order as follows:columnar-toequiaxed transition (high current intensity), columnar crystal zone (low current intensity), columnar-to-equiaxed transition (low current intensity), and equiaxed crystal zone (high current intensity). Verified numerical simulation results combined with the boundary layer theory of solidification front and dendrite breaking–fusing model revealed the dendrite deflection mechanism and growth process. When thermal stress is not considered, and no narrow segment can be found in the dendrite, the velocity magnitude on the solidification front of liquid steel can reach up to 0.041 m/s before the dendrites break.

Bainite Transformation Under Continuous Cooling of Nb-Microalloyed Low Carbon Steel

Utilizing Gleeble-1500 thermomechanical simulator, the influences of hot deformation parameters on continuous cooling bainite transformation in Nb-microalloyed low carbon steel were investigated. The results indicate that bainite starting temperature decreases with raising cooling rate and increases with increasing deformation temperature. Deformation has an accelerative effect on the bainite transformation when the specimens are deformed at 950 ℃. When the deformation temperature increases, the effect of deformation on bainite starting temperature is weakened. The amount of bainite is influenced by strain, cooling rate, and deformation temperature. When the specimens are deformed below 900 ℃, equiaxed ferrites are promoted and the bainite transformation is suppressed.

Grain refinement in the coarse-grained region of the heat-affected zone in low-carbon high-strength microalloyed steels

The microstructural features and grain refinement in the coarse-grained region of the heat-affected zone in low-carbon high-strength microalloyed steels were investigated using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and electron backscattering dif- fraction. The coarse-grained region of the heat-affected zone consists of predominantly bainite and a small proportion of acicular ferrite. Bainite packets are separated by high angle boundaries. Acicular ferrite laths or plates in the coarse-grained region of the heat-affected zone formed prior to bainite packets partition austenite grains into many smaller and separate areas, resulting in fine-grained mixed microstruc- tures. Electron backscattefing diffraction analysis indicates that the average crystallographic grain size of the coarse-grained region of the heat-affected zone reaches 6-9 μm, much smaller than that of anstanite grains.

Recent Development of Air-Cooled Bainitic Steels Containing Manganese

The superiorities of air-cooled bainitic steels were described. A series of air-cooled bainitic steels containing manganese were developed and presented, which include low carbon granular bainitic steels, low carbon grain-boundary allotriomorphic ferrite/granular bainite dual phase steels, medium and medium high carbon bainite/martensite dual phase steel, low carbon carbide free bainite/martensite dual phase steels and casting bainitic steels. The development of ultra-low carbon bainitic steels in China was also introduced.

In situ measured growth rates of bainite plates in an Fe-C-Mn-Si superbainitic steel

The growth rates of bainite plates in an Fe-C-Mn-Si superbainitie steel were investigated by in situ observation. The lengthening rates of ferrite bainite during both cooling and isothermal holding processes were observed and the growth rates of bainite plates nucleating at grain boundaries, within grains and on preformed bainite were measured. It is indicated that the lengthening rates of bainite plates during the cooling and isothermal processes were different, and that the growth rates of bainite plates nucleating at different types of sites also demon- strated diversity. The bainite plates initiating at [vain boundaries during cooling grew the fastest, while the plates nucleating on preformed bainite did the slowest. However, the growth rate of the bainite plates nucleating at grain boundaries during isothermal transformation de- creased the most, whereas the bainite plates initiating within grains grew the fastest. In addition, the growth rate of ferrite bainite in the study supported the diffusion transformation mechanism of bainite from the viewooint of ~rowth rate.

Kinetics of bainite-to-austenite transformation during continuous reheating in low carbon microalloyed steel

A dilatometer was used to study the kinetics of bainite-to-austenite transformation in low carbon microalloyed steel with the initial microstructure of bainite during the continuous reheating process. The bainite-to-austenite trans- formation was observed to take place in two steps at low heating rate. The first step is the dissolution of bainite, and the second one is the remaining bainite-to-austenite transformation controlled by a dissolution process. The calculation result of the kinetics of austenite formation shows that the two steps occur by diffusion at low heating rate. However, at high heating rate the bainite-to-austenite transformation occurs in a single step, and the process is mainly dominated by shear. The growth rate of austenite reaches the maximum at about 835℃ at different heating rates and the growth rate of austenite as a function of temperature increases with the increase in heating rate.

Ultra-high cycle fatigue behavior of high strength steel with carbide-free bainite/martensite complex microstructure

The ultra-high cycle fatigue behavior of a novel high strength steel with carbide-free bainite/martensite （CFB/M） complex microstructure was studied. The ultra-high cycle fatigue properties were measured by ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment at a frequency of 20 kHz. It is found that there is no horizontal part in the S-N curve and fatigue fracture occurs when the life of specimens exceeds 10^7 cycles. In addition, the origination of fatigue cracks tends to transfer from the surface to interior of specimens as the fatigue cycle exceeds 10^7, and the fatigue crack originations of many specimens are not induced by inclusions, but by some kind of ＂soft structure＂. It is shown that the studied high strength steel performs good ultra-high cycle fatigue properties. The ultra-high fatigue mechanism was discussed and it is suggested that specific CFB/M complex microstructure of the studied steel contributes to its superior properties.

In-depth analysis of the fatigue mechanism induced by inclusions for high-strength bearing steels

A numerical study of stress distribution and fatigue behavior in terms of the effect of voids adjacent to inclusions was conducted with finite element modeling simulations under different assumptions.Fatigue mechanisms were also analyzed accordingly.The results showed that the effects of inclusions on fatigue life will distinctly decrease if the mechanical properties are close to those of the steel matrix.For the inclusions,which are tightly bonded with the steel matrix,when the Young’s modulus is larger than that of the steel matrix,the stress will concentrate inside the inclusion;otherwise,the stress will concentrate in the steel matrix.If voids exist on the interface between inclusions and the steel matrix,their effects on the fatigue process differ with their positions relative to the inclusions.The void on one side of an inclusion perpendicular to the fatigue loading direction will aggravate the effect of inclusions on fatigue behavior and lead to a sharp stress concentration.The void on the top of inclusion along the fatigue loading direction will accelerate the debonding between the inclusion and steel matrix.

Development of grain boundary allotriomorphic ferrite/granular bainite duplex steel

A new hot-rolled low alloy high strength steel with grain boundaryallotriomorphic ferrite/granular bainite duplex microstructure has been developed through novelmicrostructure and alloying designs without any noble metal elements such as nickel and molybdenum.Its as-rolled microstructure and mechanical properties, fatigue crack propagation behavior comparedwith single granular bainitic steel as well as continuous cooling transformation, were investigatedin detail. The measured result of CCT (continuous cooling transformation) curve shows that suchduplex microstructure can be easily obtained within a wide air-cooling rate range. More importantly,this duplex microstructure has much better combination of toughness and strength than the singlegranular bainite microstructure. It is found that the grain boundary allotriomorphic ferrite in thisduplex microstructure can blunt the microcrack tip, cause fatigue crack propagation route branchingand curving, and thus it increases the resistance to fatigue crack propagation, improves steeltoughness. The mechanical properties of the above commercial duplex steel plates have achieved orexceeded 870 MPa ultimate tensile strength, 570 MPa yield strength, 18 percent elongation and 34 JCharpy V-notch impact energy at -40 deg C, showing good development potential.

A two-parameter model to predict fatigue life of high-strength steels in a very high cycle fatigue regime

In this paper, ultrasonic （20 kHz） fatigue tests were performed on specimens of a high-strength steel in very high cycle fatigue （VHCF） regime. Experimental results showed that for most tested specimens failed in a VHCF regime, a fatigue crack originated from the interior of specimen with a fish-eye pattern, which contained a fine granular area （FGA） centered by an inclusion as the crack origin. Then, a two-parameter model is proposed to predict the fatigue life of high-strength steels with fish-eye mode failure in a VHCF regime, which takes into account the inclusion size and the FGA size. The model was verified by the data of present experiments and those in the literature. Furthermore, an analytic formula was obtained for estimating the equivalent crack growth rate within the FGA. The results also indicated that the stress intensity factor range at the front of the FGA varies within a small range, which is irrespective of stress amplitude and fatigue life.

Influence of Holding Time After Deformation on Bainite Transformation in Niobium Microalloyed Steel

Using Gleeble-1500 system, the influence of holding time on bainite transformation in deformed niobium microalloyed steel during continuous cooling was analyzed, and the carbides in upper bainite were also systematically researched. The results show that the occurrence of the static recrystallization decreases the amount of bainite with an increase in the holding time and the emergence of retained austenite （RA） with the longer holding time. Two types of carbides were observed in upper bainite with regard to their precipitation sites. They either existed between the bainite ferrite laths or co-existed with RA. The formation mechanism of two kinds of carbides was analyzed by combining TEM micrographs with the model.

Effect of zirconium addition on the austenite grain coarsening behavior and mechanical properties of 900 MPa low carbon bainite steel

The ultra-fine bainitic microstructure of a 900 MPa low carbon bainitic Cu-Ni-Mo-B steel was obtained by a newly developed relaxation precipitation control （RPC） phase transformation processing. In a pan-cake like prior-austenite grain, the micro- structure consisted of lath bainite, a little of abnormal granular bainite, and acicular ferrite. The effect of zirconium carbonitrides on the austenite grain coarsening behavior was studied by transmission electron microscopy （TEM）. The results show that, the lath is narrower with increasing cooling rate. The ratio of all kinds of bainitic microstructure is proper with the intermediate cooling rate; and Zr-containing precipitates distribute uniformly, which restrains austenite grain growing in heat-affected welding zone.

Deformation-softening behaviors of high-strength and high-toughness steels used for rock bolts

In deep ground engineering,the use of high-strength and high-toughness steels for rock bolt can significantly improve its energy absorption capacity.However,the mechanisms and effects of rock loading conditions on this kind of high energy-absorbing steel for rock bolt remain immature.In this study,taking Muzhailing highway tunnel as the background,physically based crystal plasticity simulations were performed to understand the effect of rock loading rate and pretension on the deformation behaviors of twinning induced plasticity(TWIP)steel used for rock bolt.The material physical connecting to the underlying microscopic mechanisms of dislocation glide and deformation twinning were incorporated in numerical modeling.The rock loading conditions were mimicked by the real-time field monitoring data of the NPR bolt/cable equipment installed on the tunnel surrounding rock surface.The results indicate that the bolt rod exhibits pronounced deformation-softening behavior with decrease of the loading rate.There is also a sound deformation-relaxation phenomenon induced by the dramatic decrease of loading rate after pre-tensioning.The high pretension(>600 MPa or 224 k N)can help bolt rod steel resist deformation-softening behavior,especially at low loading rate(<10~(-1)MPa/s or 10~(-2)kN/s).The loading rate was found to be a significant factor affecting deformation-softening behavior while the pretension was found to be the major parameter accounting for the deformation-relaxation scenario.The results provide the theoretical basis and technical support for practical applications.

EFFECT OF THE CONTROLLED ROLLING CONTROLLED COOLING ON STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY OF THE BAINITE MICRO ALLOYED ENGINEERING STEEL

The continuous cooling transformation of hot deformation austenite austenite of test steel and the effect of different processing schedules of controlled rolling and controlled cooling on the strength and ductility have been studied. The theory and the experiment base are presented for controlled rolling and controlled cooling of the SBL micro alloyed engineering steel.