Alkyl dimethyl betaine activates the low-temperature collection capacity of sodium oleate for scheelite

The impact of alkyl dimethyl betaine (ADB) on the collection capacity of sodium oleate (NaOl) at low temperatures was evaluated using flotation tests at various scales. The low-temperature synergistic mechanism of ADB and NaOl was explored by infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, surface tension measurement, foam performance test, and flotation reagent size measurement.The flotation tests revealed that the collector mixed with octadecyl dimethyl betaine (ODB) and NaOl in a mass ratio of 4:96 exhibited the highest collection capacity. The combined collector could increase the scheelite recovery by 3.48% at low temperatures of 8–12℃. This is particularly relevant in the Luanchuan area, which has the largest scheelite concentrate output in China. The results confirmed that ODB enhanced the collection capability of NaOl by improving the dispersion and foaming performance. Betaine can be introduced as an additive to NaOl to improve the recovery of scheelite at low temperatures.

Vitrification cryopreservation of ligaments based on zwitterionic betaine

Ligament cryopreservation enables a prolonged shelf life of allogeneic ligament grafts,which is fundamentally important to ligament reconstruction.However,conventional cryopreservation techniques fail to eliminate the damage caused by ice crystal growth and the toxicity of cryopreservation agents(CPAs).Here,we report a novel CPA vitrification formulation primarily composed of betaine for ligament cryopreservation.Comprehensive optimization was conducted on the methods for vitrification and rewarming,as well as the loading and unloading conditions,based on the critical cooling rate(CCR),critical warming rate(CWR),and permeation properties of the CPA.Using biomechanical and histological level tests,we demonstrate the superior performance of our method in ligament cryopreservation.After 30 days of vitrification cryopreservation,parameters such as the Young's modulus,tensile stress,denaturation temperature,and glycosaminoglycans content of the ligament remained essentially unchanged.This work pioneers the application of ice-free cryopreservation for ligament and holds great potential for improving the long-term storage of ligament,providing valuable insights for future cryopreservation technique development.

Betaine addition to the diet alleviates intestinal injury in growing rabbits during the summer heat through the AAT/mTOR pathway

Background The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effect of different levels of betaine(Bet)inclusion in the diet on the intestinal health of growing rabbits under summer heat.A total of 100 weaned Qixing meat rabbits aged 35 d with body weight of 748.61±38.59 g were randomly divided into 5 treatment groups:control group(basal diet)and Bet groups(basal diet+0.75,1.0,1.5 or 2.0 g/kg Bet).The average daily temperature in the rabbitry during the experiment was 30.48°C and the relative humidity was 69.44%.Results Dietary addition of Bet had no significant effect on growth performance and health status of growing rabbits(P>0.05),but it increased ileal secretory immunoglobulin A content compared to the control under summer heat(P<0.05).Addition of 0.75 g/kg Bet up-regulated jejunal IL-4,down-regulated ileal TNF-αexpression(P<0.05).The addition of 1.0 g/kg Bet increased the villi height(VH)in the jejunum(P<0.05).Serum glucose levels were reduced,and the expression of SLC6A20 was up-regulated in jejunum and ileum of rabbits fed with 1.5 g/kg Bet(P<0.05).When added at 2.0 g/kg,Bet reduced serum HSP70 content,increased jejunal VH,and up-regulated duodenal SLC7A6,SLC38A2,mTOR and 4EBP-2 expression(P<0.05).Correlation analysis revealed that intestinal mTOR expression was significantly and positively correlated with SLC7A6,SLC38A2,SLC36A1 and IL-4 expression(P<0.05).Conclusions Dietary addition of Bet can up-regulate the expression of anti-inflammatory factors through the AAT/mTOR pathway,improve the intestinal immune function,alleviate intestinal damage in growing rabbits caused by summer heat,and improve intestinal health.

Preparation of Durable Antibacterial Polyester Fabrics by Grafting with the Natural Quaternary Ammonium Compound Betaine

Recently, the textile industry has increasingly advocated for natural resource-based healthcare textiles. This research presents a facile and eco-friendly approach to developing durable antibacterial polyester fabrics. Polyester fabric was first subjected to an alkaline hydrolysis to impart hydroxyl groups on the fiber surface. A natural antibacterial agent, betaine, was then covalently bonded to the hydrolyzed polyester fiber surface through esterification. XPS, Raman, SEM, and Wicking measurements were carried out to verify the esterification reaction. Antibacterial tests confirmed that betaine treatment grafted polyester fabrics revealed a remarkable antibacterial effect with inhibition rates > 99.9% against both E. coli and S. aureus and still remained inhibition rates of up to 91.5% against both bacteria after home washing for 20 cycles. Moreover, the modification significantly increased the capillary effect of polyester fabric but did not cause apparent adverse effects on the fabric’s hand or tensile strength. Overall, this grafting strategy for durable, antibacterial polyester fabric represents a significant practicality in the textile industry.

Relationship Between Drought Resistance and Betaine Aldehyde Dehydrogenase in the Shoots of Different Genotypic Wheat and Sorghum

不同基因型小麦 (TriticumaestivumL .)和高粱 (SorghumvulgareL .)的抗旱性与其种芽中的甜菜碱醛脱氢酶(BADH)的含量存在密切关系。

Electrodeposition behavior of bright nickel in air and water-stable betaine·HCl-ethylene glycol ionic liquid

The electrodeposition behaviors of nickel on glassy carbon（GC） and carbon steel（CS） electrodes were investigated in the14.3%-85.7%（mole fraction） betaine.HCl ethylene glycol（EG） ionic liquid using cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry.The results indicated that the reduction of Ni（Ⅱ） on CS electrode via a diffusion-controlled quasi-reversible process was much more facile and easier than that occurred on GC electrode,which followed a diffusion-controlled three-dimensional instantaneous nucleation and growth.Scanning electron microscopy was used to observe that the deposit was dense and contained fine crystallites with average size of（80±4） nm.Energy dispersive spectrometer analysis showed that the obtained deposit was metallic nickel.X-ray diffraction spectroscopy indicated that（111） plane was the most preferred crystal orientation.The nickel deposit was luminous and bright,and had good adhesion with the CS substrate.

Studies of Glycine Betaine on Physiology of Two Varieties of Pumpkin Seedlings under NaCl Stress

[Objective] The research aimed to discuss the relationship between Glycine betaine and the salt-tolerance mechanism of different pumpkins and confirm the mechanism of betaine in salt-tolerance physiology.[Method] Taking the seedlings of C.ficifolia and Qingli pumpkin as test materials,the effects of glycine betaine on the cell membrane permeability,MDA and root activity of two varieties of pumpkin seedlings under 300 mmol/L NaCl stress were studied.[Result] At suitable concentrations,glycine betaine could d...

Comparative Effects of Salt Stress and Extreme pH Stress Combined on Glycinebetaine Accumulation,Photosynthetic Abilities and Growth Characters of Two Rice Genotypes

Glycinebetaine （Glybet） accumulation, photosynthetic efficiency and growth performance in indica rice cultivated under salt stress and extreme pH stress were investigated. Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase （BADH） activity and Glybet accumulation in the seedlings of salt-tolerant and salt-sensitive rice varieties grown under saline and acidic conditions peaked after treatment for 72 h and 96 h, respectively, and were higher than those grown under neutral pH and alkaline salt stress. A positive correlation was found between BADH activity and Glybet content in both salt-tolerant （P=0.71） and salt-sensitive （P=0.86） genotypes. The chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and total carotenoids contents in the stressed seedlings significantly decreased under both acidic and alkaline stresses, especially in the salt-sensitive genotype. Similarly, the maximum quantum yield of PSII （Fv/Fm）, photon yield of PSII （ФPSII）, non-photochemical quenching （NPQ） and net photosynthetic rate （Pn） in the stressed seedlings were inhibited, leading to overall growth reduction. The positive correlations between chlorophyll a content and Fv/Fm, total chlorophyll content and ФPSII, and Pn as well as Pn and leaf area in both salt-tolerant and salt-sensitive genotypes were found. Saline acidic and saline alkaline soils may play a key role affecting vegetative growth prior to the reproductive stage in rice plants.

Betaine accumulation and the change of betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase activity in barley seedlings under KCl and NaCl stress

The changes in growth status, ion contents, betaine levels and betaine\|aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) activity in seedlings of nonhalophyte barley treated with different concentrations of NaCl and KCl were studied. Results showed that the inhibition of growth in barley seedlings increased as enhancing NaCl and KCl for 96h and NaCl inhibitory degree was higher than that of KCl. The K\++ content of barley seedlings in NaCl was lower than the control, while the Na\++ content was higher, the levels of Na\++ fell in the seedlings treated with KCl, but K\++ levels rose, and K\++ content was higher than that of Na\++. The betaine levels of barley shoots rose with the increase in both external salt concentration and treatment time. Higher BADH activity was observed in low\|salt concentration but lower slightly in high\|salt concentration.

Effects of Exogenous Glycine Betaine on Oxidation Metabolism in Cucumbers during Low-temperature Storage

[Objective] This study aimed to analyze the effects of different concentrations of glycine betaine（GB） on oxidation metabolism in cucumbers under low-temperature stress and to investigate the possible mechanism of low-temperature resistance in cucumber during low-temperature storage. [Method] Cucumber cultivar Zhongnong No.8 was treated with 0, 5, 10 and 15 mmol/L GB solutions for 15 min and stored at 4 ℃. Changes in oxidative metabolism-related parameters were observed. [Result] Increasing exogenous GB concentration could enhance GB content in cucumbers, decline lipoxygenase（LOX） activity, improve peroxidase（POD） and catalase（CAT） activities, remove effectively hydrogen peroxide（H2O2） and reduce the accumulation of malondialdehyde（MDA）. [Conclusion] Treating cucumbers with10 mmol/L GB exhibited the most remarkable effect.

Separation and Purification of Betaine Aldehyde Dehydrogenase from Wild Suaeda liaotungensis

High active betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH, EC 1.2.1.8) is found in wild Suaeda liaotungensis . The enzyme is purified 206 fold with recovery of 1.5%. It have a specific activity of 2363 nmol/min·mg protein and the molecular mass of each subunit is 64.5 kDa as determined by SDS PAGE.

Betaine inhibits Toll-like receptor 4 expression in rats with ethanol-induced liver injury

AIM:To test whether ethanol feeding could induce Toll-like receptor 4(TLR4)responses,assess the hepatoprotective effect of betaine and its inhibitive effect on TLR4 in animal models of alcoholic liver injury.METHODS:Forty-eight female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups as control,model,low and high dose betaine groups.Except control group,all rats were fed with high fat-containing diet plus ethanol and fish oil gavages for 8 wk.Betaine was administered intragastrically after exposure of ethanol for 4 wk.The changes of liver histology were examined.The expression of TLR4 mRNA and protein was detected by RT-PCR and Western blotting,respectively.The serum aminotransferase activity alanine transarninase(ALT),aspartate aminotransferase(AST),serum endotoxin,and liver inflammatory factors tumor necrosis factor-α(TNF-α),interferon-γ(IFN-γ),interleukin-18(IL-18)were also assayed.RESULTS:Compared with control group,rats of model group developed marked liver injury,accompanied by an increase of ALT(159.41±7.74 U/L vs 59.47± 2.34 U/L,P<0.0001),AST(248.25±1.40 U/L vs 116.89±3.48 U/L,P<0.0001),endotoxin(135.37± 30.17 ng/L vs 44.15±7.54 ng/L,P<0.0001),TNF-α(20.81±8.58 pg/mL vs 9.34±2.57 pg/mL,P=0.0003),IFN-γ(30.18±7.60 pg/mL vs 16.86±9.49 pg/mL,P= 0.0039)and IL-18(40.99±8.25 pg/mL vs 19.73±9.31 pg/mL,P=0.0001).At the same time,the expression of TLR4 mRNA and protein was markedly induced in the liver after chronic ethanol consumption(1.45±0.07 vs 0.44±0.04,P<0.0001;1.83±0.13 vs 0.56±0.08,P<0.0001).Compared with model group,betaine feeding resulted in significant decreases of ALT(64.93 ±6.06 U/L vs 159.41±7.74 U/L,P<0.0001),AST(188.73±1.11 U/L vs 248.25±1.40 U/L,P<0.0001),endotoxin(61.80±12.56 ng/L vs 135.37±30.17 ng/L,P<0.0001),TNF-α(9.79±1.32 pg/mL vs 20.81± 8.58 pg/mL,P=0.0003),IFN-γ(18.02±5.96 pg/mL vs 30.18±7.60 pg/mL,P=0.0008)and IL-18(18.23±7.01 pg/mL vs 40.99±8.25 pg/mL,P<0.0001).Betaine also improved liver steatosis.The expression levels of TLR4 mRNA or protein in liver tissues were significantly lowered(0.62±0.04 vs 1.45±0.07,P<0.0001;and 0.65±0.06 vs 1.83±0.13,P<0.0001).There was a statistical difference of TLR4 mRNA and protein expression between high-and low-dose betaine groups(0.62±0.04 vs 0.73±0.05,P<0.0001,and 0.65±0.06 vs 0.81±0.09,P<0.0001).CONCLUSION:Betaine can prevent the alcoholinduced liver injury effectively and improve the liver function.The expression of TLR4 increases significantly in ethanol-fed rats and betaine administration can inhibit TLR4 expression.

Betaine affects muscle lipid metabolism via regulating the fatty acid uptake and oxidation in finishing pig

Background： Betaine affects fat metabolism in animals, but the specific mechanism is still not clear. The purpose of this study was to investigate possible mechanisms of betaine in altering lipid metabolism in muscle tissue in finishing pigs.Methods： A total of 120 crossbred gilts（Landrace × Yorkshire × Duroc） with an average initial body weight of 70.1 kg were randomly allotted to three dietary treatments. The treatments included a corn–soybean meal basal diet supplemented with 0, 1250 or 2500 mg/kg betaine. The feeding experiment lasted 42 d.Results： Betaine addition to the diet significantly increased the concentration of free fatty acids（FFA） in muscle（P 〈 0.05）. Furthermore, the levels of serum cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were decreased（P 〈 0.05） and total cholesterol content was increased in muscle（P 〈 0.05） of betaine fed pigs. Experiments on genes involved in fatty acid transport showed that betaine increased expression of lipoprotein lipase（LPL）, fatty acid translocase/cluster of differentiation（FAT/CD36）, fatty acid binding protein（FABP3） and fatty acid transport protein（FATP1）（P 〈 0.05）. The abundance of fatty acid transport protein and fatty acid binding protein were also increased by betaine（P 〈 0.05）. As for the key factors involved in fatty acid oxidation, although betaine supplementation didn＇t affect the level of carnitine and malonyl-CoA, betaine increased mR NA and protein abundance of carnitine palmitransferase-1（CPT1）and phosphorylated-AMPK（P 〈 0.05）.Conclusions： The results suggested that betaine may promoted muscle fatty acid uptake via up-regulating the genes related to fatty acid transporter including FAT/CD36, FATP1 and FABP3. On the other hand, betaine activated AMPK and up-regulated genes related to fatty acid oxidation including PPARα and CPT1. The underlying mechanism regulating fatty acid metabolism in pigs supplemented with betaine is associated with the up-regulation of genes involved in fatty acid transport and fatty acid oxidation.

Overaccumulation of glycine betaine makes the function of the thylakoid membrane better in wheat under salt stress

Wheat(Triticum aestivum L.) lines T1, T4, and T6 were genetically modified to increase glycine betaine(GB) synthesis by introduction of the BADH(betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase, BADH)gene from mountain spinach(Atriplex hortensis L.). These transgenic lines and WT of wheat(T. aestivum L.) were used to study the effect of increased GB synthesis on wheat tolerance to salt stress. Salt stress due to 200 mmol L-1Na Cl impaired the photosynthesis of the four wheat lines, as indicated by declines in net photosynthetic rate(Pn), stomatal conductance(Gs),maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII(Fv/Fm), and actual photochemical efficiency of PSII(ФPSII) and an increase in intercellular CO2concentration(Ci). In comparison with WT, the effect of salinity on the three transgenic lines was mild. Salt stress caused disadvantageous changes in lipids and their fatty acid compositions in the thylakoid membrane of the transgenic lines and WT. Under salt stress, the three transgenic lines showed slightly higher chlorophyll and carotenoid contents and higher Hill reaction activities and Ca2+-ATPase activity than WT. All the results suggest that overaccumulation of GB resulting from introduction of the BADH gene can enhance the salt tolerance of transgenic plants, especially in the protection of the components and function of thylakoid membranes, thereby making photosynthesis better. Changes in lipids and fatty acid compositions in the thylakoid membrane may be involved in the increased salt stress tolerance of the transgenic lines.

Dietary betaine activates hepatic VTGⅡexpression in laying hens associated with hypomethylation of GR gene promoter and enhanced GR expression

Background: Vitellogenin(VTG) is a precursor of egg yolk proteins synthesized within the liver of oviparous vertebrates. Betaine is an important methyl donor that is reported to improve egg production of laying hens with an unclear mechanism. In the present study, we fed betaine-supplemented diet(0.5%) to laying hens for 4 wk and investigated its effect on VTGII expression in the liver.Results: Betaine did not affect chicken weight, but significantly(P < 0.05) increased egg laying rate accompanied with a significant(P < 0.05) increase in hepatic concentration and plasma level of VTGI. Plasma estrogen level did not change,but the hepatic expression of estrogen receptor α(ERα) mR NA was significantly(P < 0.05) up-regulated. Betaine did not affect the protein content of ERα, but significantly(P < 0.05) increased hepatic expression of glucocorticoid receptor(GR)at both mR NA and protein levels. Also, ERα/GR interaction tended to be enhanced in the liver nuclear lysates of betainesupplemented hens as determined by co-immunoprecipitation. Furthermore, dietary betaine supplementation significantly increased(P < 0.05) the hepatic expression of methyl-transfer enzymes, such as BHMT, GNMT, and DNMT1,which was associated with higher SAM/SAH ratio and hypomethylation of GR promoter regions.Conclusions: Betaine activates hepatic VTGII expression in association with modified DNA methylation of GR gene promoter, GR expression and ERα/GR interaction. Activation of hepatic VTGII expression may contribute, at least partly, to improved egg production in betaine-supplemented hens.

Synthesis and Structural Characterization of a New Cadmium(II) Complex with a Double Betaine

A new flexible double betaine L （L = 1,4-bis（pyridinio-4-carboxylato-N-methyl）benzene, C20H16N2O4） and its cadmium（Ⅱ） complex [Cd（H2O）aL（NO3）]NO3.H2O 1 were synthesized. Complex 1 was obtained by self-assembly reaction of [Cd（NO3）2]-4H2O and L in hot water,and its crystal structure was determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Crystallographic data for complex 1： C20H24CdN4O14.H2O, Mr = 674.85, monoclinic, space group P21/c, a =13.7854（3）, b = 14.2820（3）, c = 14.9188（4） ,A°, β = 116.418（1）°, V = 2630.5（1）A°^3, Z = 4, Dc= 1.704g/cm^3,/J（MoKα） = 0.911 mm^-1, F（000） = 1368, the final R = 0.0315 and wR = 0.0768 for 3637 observed reflections with I 〉 2σ（I）. In complex 1, L acts as a monodentate ligand to link a Cd（Ⅱ） ion in a novel coordination mode of double betaines. The mononuclear [Cd（H2O）aL（NO3）] units are connected through intermolecular hydrogen bonds and π-π stacking reactions to generate a 3D network.

Exogenous application of glycine betaine improved water use efficiency in winter wheat(Triticum aestivum L.) via modulating photosynthetic efficiency and antioxidative capacity under conventional and limited irrigation conditions

Improving water use efficiency(WUE)is an important subject in agricultural irrigation for alleviating the scarcity of water resources in semiarid regions of the North China Plain.Moreover,glycine betaine(GB)is one of the most effective compatible solutes synthesized naturally in plants for enhancing stress tolerance under abiotic stress,but little information is available on the involvement of GB in regulating crop WUE under field conditions.This study was conducted to explore the role of exogenously applied GB in improving WUE and plant physiological and biochemical responses inwinterwheat subjected to conventional or limited irrigation during the 2015–2016 and 2016–2017 growing seasons.Exogenous application of GB significantly enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities and reduced the accumulation ofmalondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide under limited irrigation conditions.Furthermore,GB-treated plantsmaintained higher leaf relative water content andmembrane stability,which led to higher chlorophyll content and gas exchange attributes for better intrinsic and instantaneouswater use efficiencies compared to control plants under limited irrigation conditions.GB-treated plants had higher indole-acetic acid and zeatin riboside levels but lower ABA levels compared to control plants under conventional and limited irrigation conditions.Additionally,GB enhanced the grain filling rate and duration,grain number per spike,and final grainweight,which resulted in higher grain yield compared to the control.Interestingly,GB significantly improved the integrative and photosynthetic WUE under conventional and limited irrigation conditions,although GB treatment did not markedly affect total water consumption.These results suggest the involvement of GB in improving WUEs in winter wheat by modulating hormonal balance,membrane stability,photosynthetic performance and antioxidant systems to maintain higher grain yield under conventional and limited irrigation conditions.

Betaine and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: Back to the future?

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is an important indication for liver transplantation in many Western countries. Obesity and insulin resistance are the two most common risk factors for NASH, which can lead to recurrent NASH after liver transplantation. There is currently no approved therapy for NASH, and treatment is directed at risk factor modification and lifestyle changes. Betaine has been used for NASH, with mixed results, and may show promise in conjunction with other agents in clinical trials.

Effect of Betaine on the Regulation of the Lipid Metabolism in Laying Hen

The experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of betaine on lipid metabolism of laying hens. 1 600 ISA brown laying hens of 20 weeks of age were alloted randomly into 4 groups each with 4 replicates of 100 layers, the layers were given a corn-soybean basal diet with 0,400,600 and 800 mg/kg betaine re-spectirely. Results indicated that supplementation of 600 mg/kg betaine significantly improved lay performance, and increased egg production 8.67% (P<0.04), decreased feed/egg ratio by 9.02%(P<0.03) compared with control, but there were no significant differences in egg weight and feed intake. It was found that supplementation of 600 mg/kg betaine decreased weights of abdominal fat by 19.63%(P<0.02)and 22.35% (P<0.02), and decreased liver fat by 8.52%(P<0.05) and 16.28%(P<0.01) in 50 and 70 weeks of age respectively. Compared with control, in 70 weeks of age, activity of LPL in abdominal fat was decreased by 44.83% (P<0.01), HSL activity in abdominal fat increased by 50.0% (P<0.02), and MDH activity in liver was decreased by 28.74 % (P < 0.03). Supplementation of 600 betaine increased levels of T3 by 43.29 % (P < 0.05) and 43.95 % (P < 0.02) in 50 and 70 weeks of age respectively, and increased the concentration of cAMP in hypothalamus and anterior pituitary by 59.89% (P<0.01) and 24.03% (P<0.05) respectively in 70 weeks of age. The concentration of serum gluclose (GLU) , FFA and phospholipid were increased by 44.50% (P<0.03), 19.66%(P<0.03) and 71.66% (P<0.01) in 50 weeks of age. The concentration of serum gluclose (GLU), FFA and phospholipid were increased by 16.25%(P<0.05),22.51%(P<0.02) and 22.42%(P<0.01) in 70 weeks of age.

Maternal betaine suppresses adrenal expression of cholesterol trafficking genes and decreases plasma corticosterone concentration in offspring pullets

Background:Laying hens supplemented with betaine demonstrate activated adrenal steroidogenesis and deposit higher corticosterone(CORT)in the egg yolk.Here we further investigate the effect of maternal betaine on the plasma CORT concentration and adrenal expression of steroidogenic genes in offspring pullets.Results:Maternal betaine significantly reduced(P<0.05)plasma CORT concentration and the adrenal expression of vimentin that is involved in trafficking cholesterol to the mitochondria for utilization in offspring pullets.Concurrently,voltage-dependent anion channel 1 and steroidogenic acute regulatory protein,the two mitochondrial proteins involved in cholesterol influx,were both down-regulated at m RNA and protein levels.However,enzymes responsible for steroid syntheses,such as cytochrome P450 family 11 subfamily A member 1 and cytochrome P450 family 21 subfamily A member 2,were significantly(P<0.05)up-regulated at m RNA or protein levels in the adrenal gland of pullets derived from betaine-supplemented hens.Furthermore,expression of transcription factors,such as steroidogenic factor-1,sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 and c AMP response element-binding protein,was significantly(P<0.05)enhanced,together with their downstream target genes,such as 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme A reductase,LDL receptor and sterol regulatory element-binding protein cleavage-activating protein.The promoter regions of most steroidogenic genes were significantly(P<0.05)hypomethylated,although methyl transfer enzymes,such as AHCYL,GNMT1 and BHMT were up-regulated.Conclusions:These results indicate that the reduced plasma CORT in betaine-supplemented offspring pullets is linked to suppressed cholesterol trafficking into the mitochondria,despite the activation of cholesterol and corticosteroid synthetic genes associated with promoter hypomethylation.