Betalains protect various body organs through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways

Betalains are natural coloring pigments with betalamic acid as the core structure of all subclasses.Besides their coloring properties,betalains exhibit various biological activities,including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties,which are highly imperative.Further in-vivo studies reported that betalains protect various body organs,leading to health enhancement.Body organs,including the heart,liver,kidney,lung,etc.,are important for a healthy life.However,these organs can be affected or damaged by various stress factors,toxicants,and harmful substances.Recent studies have claimed that betalains could protect all vital organs of the body through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.This review article described the in-vivo antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of betalains in various cell-line or animal models.A comprehensive discussion has been provided on the mechanism of action of betalains in protecting various body organs,including cardio-protective effect,hepato-protective ability,renal protection capacity,repro-protective ability,neuro-protective effect,lung protection,and gut protection ability.Finally,future research directions and conclusions have been outlined.

Structural Comportment of Extract of Bougainvillea xbuttiana Flower Incorporated in Silica Xerogel Matrix

Measurement of the fluorescence comportment of Bougainvillea xbuttiana flowers embedded in silica xerogels matrix prepared with two different water to tetraethyl-orthosilicate [Si(OC2H5)4] ratio molar of 11 and 5, without heat-treatment, we report the grade of biostability of compound. The structural comportment for the PSI and PSII present in Bougainvillea flower is similar to the structural comportment for these photosystems present in leaves when they are incorporated on inorganic matrix such as silica xerogels. The contribution of the natural pigment of this kind of flower such as betalains which consist of betaxanthins and betacyanins, determines their colors contributed in the range of wavelength from about 550 nm to 660 nm.

Bioassay and Characterization of Several Palmer Amaranth (<i>Amaranthus palmeri</i>) Biotypes with Varying Tolerances to Glyphosate

The wide distribution of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) in the southern US became a serious weed control problem prior to the extensive use of glyphosate-resistant crops. Currently glyphosate-resistant populations of Palmer amaranth occur in many areas of this geographic region creating an even more serious threat to crop production. Investigations were undertaken using four biotypes (one glyphosate-sensitive, one resistant from Georgia and two of unknown tolerance from Mississippi) of Palmer amaranth to assess bioassay techniques for the rapid detection and level of resistance in populations of this weed. These plants were characterized with respect to chlorophyll, betalain, and protein levels and immunological responses to an antibody of 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) the target site of glyphosate. Only slight differences were found in four biotypes grown under greenhouse conditions regarding extractable soluble protein and chlorophyll content, but one biotype was found to be devoid of the red pigment, betalain. Measurement of early growth (seedling shoot elongation) of seedlings was a useful detection tool to determine glyphosate resistance. A leaf disc bioassay (using visual ratings and/or chlorophyll analysis) and an assay for shikimate accumulation were effective methods for determining herbicide resistance levels. The two unknown biotypes were found to be resistant to this herbicide. Some differences were found in the protein profiles of the biotypes, and western blots demonstrated a weak labeling of antibody in the glyphosate-sensitive biotype, whereas strong labeling occurred in the resistant plants. This latter point supports research by others, that increased copy number of the EPSPS gene (and increased EPSPS protein levels) is the resistance mechanism in this species. Results indicate the utility of certain bioassays for the determination of resistance and provide useful comparative information on the levels of inherent constituents among closely related plants.

Effects of <i>Myrothecium verrucaria</i>on Two Glyphosate-Resistant <i>Amaranthus palmeri</i>Biotypes Differing in Betacyanin Content

Previously we found two biotypes of Amaranthus palmeri (Palmer amaranth) in a population of this economically important weed that were resistant to glyphosate but differed with respect to pigmentation. One biotype was typically red-pigmented (betacyanin) while the other was green, with no visual appearance of red hue on any plant part at any growth stage. We have also reported that a strain of Myrothecium verrucaria (MV) exhibited bioherbicidal activity against several important weeds including glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth. In greenhouse tests, MV was applied to these two biotypes (red and green) at two ages (3-week- and 6-week-old) and effects of this fungus monitored over a 5-day time course. Initial symptoms of MV (16 to 24 h after inoculation) were: epinastic curvature, wilting and development of lesions on leaves and stems. Generally, the younger plants tended to be more sensitive to MV than older plants. Bioherbicidal damage increased with time leading to necrosis and plant mortality and increasing disease progress. Severe loss of fresh weight occurred in both biotypes as compared to untreated plants. Results indicated that MV was effective on both biotypes, but effects on growth reduction and disease progression were more rapid and generally greater in the green biotype, suggesting that compounds responsible for red pigmentation may be more potent as defense against pathogen attack.

Variability in total antioxidant capacity, antioxidant leaf pigments and foliage yield of vegetable amaranth

Twenty vegetable amaranth genotypes were evaluated for total antioxidant capacity, antioxidant leaf pigments, vitamins, and selection of suitable genotypes for extraction of juice in a randomized complete block design（RCBD） with three replications. Vegetable amaranth was rich in chlorophyll, β-cyanins, β-xanthins, betalains, carotene, ascorbic acid and total antioxidant. The genotypes VA14, VA16, VA18, VA15, and VA20 could be selected as amaranth vegtable varieties with high yields and abundance antioxidant leaf pigments and vitamins to produce juice. The genotypes VA13 and VA19 had above-average foliage yield and high antioxidant profiles while the genotypes VA2, VA3, VA9, VA11, VA12, and VA17 had a high antioxidant profiles and below-average foliage yield. These genotypes could be used as a donor parent for integration of potential high antioxidant profiles genes into other genotypes. The correlation study revealed a strong positive association among all the antioxidant leaf pigments, total antioxidant capacity and foliage yield. Selection based on total antioxidant capacity, antioxidant leaf pigments could economically viable to improve the yield potential of vegetable amaranth genotypes. Total carotene and ascorbic acid exhibited insignificant genotypic correlation with all the traits except total antioxidant capacity. This indicates that selection for antioxidant vitamins might be possible without compromising yield loss.

Betanidin significantly reduces blood glucose levels in BALB/c mice fed with an atherogenic diet

Six weeks BALB/c mice were fed with an atherogenic diet for 24 weeks and purified water ad libitum.An experimental group was given betanidin,orally,during the last 40 days of the experiment at a dose of 9.6 mg per mouse per day.Negative controls were fed with standard rodent chow only.Glycemia was measured at the end of the experiment,after overnight fasting.The group treated with betanidin presented a highly significant reduction of 50.94%compared to positive controls.We conclude that betanidin reduces glycemia in BALB/c mice by an unidentified mechanism.

Alginate Encapsulation as a Preservation Method of Pitaya Fruit Juice （Stenocereus spp.）

Alginate is a widely used polymer matrix in food industry since it allows formation of spherical, soft, and strong membranes adequate for encapsulation of a large amount of products, including food. The flow rate of alginate solutions and the permeability of the capsules were evaluated within an acidic-low acidic pH range and different alginate concentrations. In solutions adjusted at different pH （3.0 to 7.0） with concentrations of alginate of 0.8, 1.0, and 1.2% w/v, flow rates at 20 ℃ were 6.95 to 10.00, 4.54-5.35, and 2.60-2.80 mL sl, respectively. Permeability of the capsules was evaluated in terms of the diffusion of H＋ions （expressed as pH） and soluble solids （~Brix）. Meanwhile both diffusions were minor at 4.0 〈 pH 〈 7.0 and were significantly superior at more acidic pH （P 〈 0.05）, alginate concentration did not present significant effect. Yellow, purple, and red juices from Stenocereus spp. fruits （pitayas） were encapsulated using 1.0% of alginate and stored with isotonic solution （3 mL g^-1） at 4 ℃ in the dark. The capsules were spherical with diameter between 4.59 and 470 mm, weight from 82.60 to 97.50 rag, and volume of 0.075-0.098 mL. Pigment （total betalains content） diffusion reached equilibrium at 24 h of storage, at which point retentions of total betalains in the yellow, purple, and red capsules were 87.79, 96.13, and 85.13%, respectively. Also, changes in the color of the capsules were observed during storage.

甜菜色素的提取及其生理活性研究进展

摘要：甜菜色素（betalain）是一种广泛存在于石竹目植物中的水溶性色素，根据betacyanin和betaxanthin含量，使植物呈现出黄到紫红的色彩。betalain在封装的条件下稳定性好，且具有较多的生理活性，如抗氧化、抗癌、抗辐射等，可以作为食品、医药、化妆品等领域的重要功能性添加成分，而且还可以用于太阳能敏化电池的开发。本文对国内外betalain的结构及其分离纯化、生理活性研究进行了综述，以期为该类物质的分离纯化以及应用奠定基础。

Transcriptome and Metabolic Profiling Provides Insigh into Betalain Biosynthesis and Evolution in Mirabilis jalapa

Betalains are tyrosine-derived pigments that occur solely in one plant order, the Caryophyllales, where they largely replace the anthocyanins in a mutually exclusive manner. In this study, we conducted multi-species transcriptome and metabolic profiling in Mirabilisjalapa and additional betalain-producing species to identify candidate genes possibly involved in betalain biosynthesis. Among the candidates identified, betalainrelated ytochrome P450 and glucosyltransferase-type genes, which catalyze tyrosine hydroxylation or （hydroxy）cinnamoyl-glucose formation, respectively, were further functionally characterized. We detected the expression of genes in the flavonoid/anthocyanin biosynthetic pathways as well as their metabolite intermediates in betalain-accumulating M. jalapa flowers, and found that the anthocyanin-related gene ANTHOCYANIDIN SYNTHASE （MjANS） is highly expressed in the betalain-accumulating petals. However, it appears that MjANS contains a significant deletion in a region spanning the corresponding enzyme active site. These findings provide novel insights into betalain biosynthesis and a possible explanation for how anthocyanins have been lost in this plant species. Our study also implies a complex, non-uniform history for the loss of anthocyanin production across betalain producers, previously assumed to be strictly due to diminished expression of anthocyanin-related genes.

＂La Vie en Rose＂： Biosynthesis, Sources, and Applications of Betalain Pigments

Betalains are tyrosine-derived red-violet and yellow pigments found exclusively in plants of the Caryophyllales order, which have drawn both scientific and economic interest. Nevertheless, research into betalain chemistry, biochemistry, and function has been limited as comparison with other major classes of plant pigments such as anthocyanins and carotenoids. The core biosynthetic pathway of this pigment class has only been fully elucidated in the past few years, opening up the possibility for betalain pigment engineering in plants and microbes. In this review, we discuss betalain metabolism in light of recent advances in the field, with a current survey of characterized genes and enzymes that take part in be- talain biosynthesis, catabolism, and transcriptional regulation, and an outlook of what is yet to be discovered. A broad view of currently used and potential new sources for betalains, including utilization of natural sources or metabolic engineering, is provided together with a summary of potential applications of beta- lains in research and commercial use.

A straight-forward seed production technology system for foxtail millet(Setaria italica)

For autogamous crops, a precondition for using heterosis is to produce sufficient pure male-sterile female parents that can be used to produce hybrid seeds. To date, cytoplasmic male sterility(CMS)and environment-sensitive genic male sterility(EGMS) have been used commercially to exploit heterosis for autogamous species. However, neither CMS nor EGMS has been established for foxtail millet(Setaria italica). Here, we report on the establishment and application of a seed production technology(SPT) system for this crop.First, we established a Ds Red-based SPT system,but found that it was unsuitable because it required the use of a fluorescent device for seed sorting. Instead, we constructed an SPT system with de novo betalain biosynthesis as the selection marker. This allowed us to distinguish transgenic seeds with the naked eye, thereby facilitating the identification of SPT maintainer line seeds. In this system, a seed sorter was not required to obtain sufficient seeds. The key point of the strategy is that the seed pool of the SPT maintainer line is propagated by artificial identification and harvesting of male-fertile individuals in the field, and the male-sterile line seed pool for hybrid production is produced and propagated by free pollination of male-sterile plants with the SPT maintainer line. In a field experiment, we obtained 423.96 kg male-sterile line seeds per acre,which is sufficient to plant 700.18 acres of farmland for hybrid seed production or male-sterile line reproduction. Our study therefore describes a powerful tool for hybrid seed production in foxtail millet, and demonstrates how the SPT system can be used for a small-grained crop with high reproduction efficiency.

Effectiveness of Opuntia ficus-indica mucilage as a carrier agent in microencapsulation of bioactive compounds of Amaranthus hypochondriacus var. Nutrisol

The effectiveness of maltodextrin(10%)and cactus mucilage(CM)(0%,0.25%,0.50%,0.75%,and 1%)as carrier agents was evaluated in the encapsulation of bioactive amaranth compounds.Spray drying,an efficient encapsulation method,achieved high yields(62.9%-68%).The increase in CM concentration significantly augmented the water absorption index(WAI),bulk density,and hygroscopicity of the encapsulated amaranth powders.Conversely,it significantly decreased the moisture content,water activity,and water solubility index(WSI).The glass transition temperatures(>40℃),Hausner ratio(HR),and Carr’s index(CI)values indicated the suitability of powders for handling and processing.Moreover,no cracks were observed in the microcapsules surface,which favoured the bioactive amaranth compounds retention and stability.Thus,low degradation rate constants and long half-life time values were determined for the encapsulated amaranth powders,indicative of its storage appropriateness.Incorporation of 0.75%CM was an efficient concentration to achieve high percentage retention of betacyanins(55.5%),betaxanthins(58%),total polyphenols(73.3%),amaranthine(56.8%),isoamaranthine(62.7%),individual polyphenols(44.6%-81%),and antioxidant activity(79.6%).These results demonstrated the efficiency of CM as an encapsulating agent in the food industry.

Unraveling betalain suppression in pitaya:insights from co-activator HuMYB9 binding at HuCYP76AD1-1,HuADH1,and HuDODA1 super-enhancers

Objectives:Myeloblastosis(MYB)proteins,recognized as crucial transcriptional regulators,play an integral role in orchestrating the range of plant colors.Materials and Methods:Pitaya(Hylocereus spp.),a distinctive commercially cultivated fruit,stands apart due to its unique betalains,water-soluble nitrogen-enriched pigments that confer its vibrant hues.Although betalain biosynthesis has been extensively explored,the potential infuence of co-activators that might disrupt pigment production remains relatively unexplored.Results:In this study,we found that HuMYB9,an R2R3-MYB repressor,exhibited a remarkable decreasing during pitaya maturation.Sequence alignment analyses showed conserved R2 and R3 domains within the C-terminal of HuMYB9.HuMYB9’s regulatory activities were found to be nuclear localized and it interacted with specifc elements within the promoters of HuDODA1,HuADH1,and HuCYP76AD1-1,thus infuencing the transcriptional activities in vitro.HuMYB9 transiently downregulated the expression of key betalain biosynthetic genes with a corresponding effect on the levels of pitaya pulp betalains.Conclusions:Our results suggest that HuMYB9 operates as a suppressor,specifcally downregulating the expression of HuCYP76AD1-1,HuDODA1,and HuADH,thereby modulating betalain biosynthesis in pitaya.Collectively,our fndings provide invaluable insights into the regulation of betalain accumulation in pitaya.

Effects of the seasonal variation in the phytochemical composition and bioactivities of the wild halophyte Suaeda fruticosa

Suaeda fruticosa is an edible medicinal species belonging to the Amaranthaceae (Chenopodiaceae) family widely distributed in the Mediterranean regions, especially in Tunisia. This species shoots change their colour from green to red-violet along the different seasons, being an interesting matrix to study for its chemical composition. Therefore, in a ground-breaking study, the hydromethanolic extracts of green and red-violet Tunisian S. fruticosa shoots were profiled for their individual phenolic compounds and betalains by High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with a Diode-Array Detector and Mass Spectrometry by Electrospray Ionization (HPLC-DAD/ESI-MS), and the in vitro antioxidant, antibacterial, and hepatotoxic properties were also assessed. The obtained results revealed that the hydromethanolic extracts contain interesting levels of phenolic compounds especially O-glycosylated and acylated flavonoids, while betacyanins were the main betalain compounds found. As expected, red-violet shoots were richer in phenolic compounds (45.5 ± 0.2 mg/g extract) and betalains (33.3 ± 0.2 mg/g extract) than greener shoots. Flavonoid/betalains rich extracts presented lower EC50 values for ABTS+, DPPH, and TBARS;as also lower MIC values against Gram-positive bacteria. This study showed that the wild halophyte growing in a hard environment, were drought and salinity are dominant, is an important source of flavonoids and betanin, important molecules that can find application in different industries, given the constant demands for natural bioactives and colouring compounds. Overall, these natural compounds may be valorised and further investigated to validate their potential as functional ingredients.