The measurement of responsivity of infrared photodetectors using a cavity blackbody

For the measurement of responsivity of an infrared photodetector,the most-used radiation source is a blackbody.In such a measurement system,distance between the blackbody,the photodetector and the aperture diameter are two parameters that contribute most measurement errors.In this work,we describe the configuration of our responsivity measurement system in great detail and present a method to calibrate the distance and aperture diameter.The core of this calibration method is to transfer direct measurements of these two parameters into an extraction procedure by fitting the experiment data to the calculated results.The calibration method is proved experimentally with a commercially extended InGaAs detector at a wide range of blackbody temperature,aperture diameter and distance.Then proof procedures are further extended into a detector fabricated in our laboratory and consistent results were obtained.

Analysis of the blackbody-radiation shift in an ytterbium optical lattice clock

We accurately evaluate the blackbody-radiation shift in a171 Yb optical lattice clock by utilizing temperature measurement and numerical simulation. In this work. three main radiation sources are considered for the blackbody-radiation shift, including the heated atomic oven, the warm vacuum chamber, and the room-temperature vacuum windows. The temperatures on the outer surface of the vacuum chamber are measured during the clock operation period by utilizing seven calibrated temperature sensors. Then we infer the temperature distribution inside the vacuum chamber by numerical simulation according to the measured temperatures. Furthermore, we simulate the temperature variation around the cold atoms while the environmental temperature is fluctuating. Finally, we obtain that the total blackbody-radiation shift is -1.289(7)Hz with an uncertainty of 1.25×10^(-17) for our ^(171)Yb optical lattice clock. The presented method is quite suitable for accurately evaluating the blackbody-radiation shift of the optical lattice clock in the case of lacking the sensors inside the vacuum chamber.

Spatial Target Detection Based on the Measurement of Equivalent Blackbody Temperature

At low SNR cases,the distinction between spatial point-target and interferences as decoys is still a very difficult problem. Based on the characteristics that target and interferences as decoys and noise had different radiation intensity and radiation changing frequency,the concept of the equivalent blackbody temperature (EBT) was built and the calculation model of EBT was designed. The model could effectively reduce the interference of the space environment and fully show the radiation differences between point-target and interferences as decoys. It would be very effective in the detection of the target. In order to detect the target,the effective estimator of EBT was designed according to the observed data,and the system error and the variation range of the estimator of EBT were estimated. Finally the multi-frame estimator was designed to improve the estimation stability of EBT,and the use of this estimator would identify the point-target more effectively.

Modeling the Interior of Black Holes Utilizing a 4-D Spatial Blackbody Radiation Model with an Exponential Distribution

This is a second follow up paper on a model, which treats the black hole as a 4-D spatial ball filled with blackbody radiation. For the interior radiative mass distribution, we employ a new type of truncated probability distribution function, the exponential distribution. We find that this distribution comes closest to reproducing a singularity at the center, and yet it is finite at 4-D radius, . This distribution will give a constant gravitational acceleration for a test particle throughout the black hole, irrespective of radius. The 4-D gravitational acceleration is given by the expression, , where R is the radius of the black hole, MR is its mass, and is the exponential shape parameter, which depends only on the mass, or radius, of the black hole. We calculate the gravitational force, and the entropy within the black hole interior, as well as on its surface, identified as the event horizon, which separates 3-D from 4-D space. Similar to a truncated Gaussian distribution, the gravitational force increases discontinuously, and dramatically, upon entry into the 4-D black hole from the 3-D side. It is also radius dependent within the 4-D black hole. Moreover, the total entropy is shown to be much less than the Bekenstein result, similar to the truncated Gaussian. For the gravitational force, we obtain, , where Mr is the radiative mass enclosed within a 4-D volume of radius r. This unusual force law indicates that the gravitational force acting upon a layer of blackbody photons at radius r is strictly proportional to the enclosed radiative energy, MrC2, contained within that radius, with 0.1λ being the constant of proportionality. For the entropy at radius, r, and on the surface, we obtain an expression which is order of magnitude comparable to the truncated Normal distribution. Tables are presented for three black holes, one having a mass equal to that of the sun. The other two have masses, which are ten times that of the sun, and 106 solar masses. The corresponding parameters are found to equal, , respectively. We compare these results to the truncated Gaussian distribution, which were worked out in another paper.

On the Internal Structure of a Black Hole Utilizing a 4-D Spatial Blackbody Radiation Model

A black hole is treated as a self-contained, steady state, spherically symmetric, 4-dimensional spatial ball filled with blackbody radiation, which is embedded in 3-D space. To model the interior distribution of radiation, we invoke two stellar-like equations, generalized to 4-D space, and a probability distribution function (pdf) for the actual radiative mass distribution within its interior. For our purposes, we choose a truncated Gaussian distribution, although other pdf’s with support, r ∈[0, R], are possible. The variable, r = r(4), refers to the 4-D radius within the black hole. To fix the coefficients, (μ,σ), associated with this distribution, we choose the mode to equal zero, which will give maximum energy density at the center of the black hole. This fixes the parameter, μ = 0. Our black hole does not have a singularity at the center, and, moreover, it is well-behaved within its volume. The rip or tear in the space-time continuum occurs at the event horizon, as shown in a previous work, because it is there that we transition from 3-D space to 4-D space. For the shape parameter, σ , we make use of the temperature just inside the event horizon, which is determined by the mass, or radius, of the black hole. The amount of radiative heat inflow depends on mass, or radius, and temperature, T2 ≥ 2.275K , where, T2, is the temperature just outside the event horizon. Among the interesting consequences of this model is that the entropy, S(4), can be calculated as an extrinsic, versus intrinsic, variable, albeit in 4-D space. It is found that S(4) is much less than the comparable Bekenstein result. It also scales not as, R2 , where R is the radius of the black hole. Rather, it is given by an expression involving the lower incomplete gamma function, γ(s,x), and interestingly, scales with a more complicated function of radius. Thus, within our framework, the black hole is a highly-ordered state, in sharp contrast to current consensus. Moreover, the model-dependent gravitational “constant” in 4-D space, Gr(4), can be determined, and this will depend on radius. For the specific pdf chosen, Gr(4)Mr = 0.1c2(r4/σ2), where Mr is the enclosed radiative mass of the black hole, up to, and including, radius r. At the event horizon, where, r = R, this reduces to GR(4) = 0.2GR3/σ2, due to the Schwarzschild relation between mass and radius. The quantity, G, is Newton’s constant. There is a sharp discontinuity in gravitational strength at the 3-D/4-D interface, identified as the event horizon, which we show. The 3-D and 4-D gravitational potentials, however, can be made to match at the interface. This lines up with previous work done by the author where a discontinuity between 3-D and 4-D quantities is required in order to properly define a positive-definite radiative surface tension at the event horizon. We generalize Gauss’ law in 4-D space as this will enable us to find the strength of gravity at any radius within the spherically symmetric, 4-D black hole. For the pdf chosen, gr(4) = Gr(4)Mr/r3 = 0.1c2r/σ2, a remarkably simple and elegant result. Finally, we show that the work required to assemble the black hole against radiative pressure, which pushes out, is equal to, 0.1MRc2. This factor of 0.1 is specific to 4-D space.

NIR Light-Promoted Whole-Cell Catalysis Based on a Light-Harvesting Blackbody Bioreactor

Whole-cell catalysis,which utilizes enzymes expressed in whole organism(e.g.bacteria and fungi)as the catalyst,is a specific mode of biocatalysis.Compared with pure enzyme catalysis,the catalysis with whole-cell catalysts is more cost-effective.However,in the process of whole-cell catalysis,heat treatment is often necessary due to the high optimum temperature of the enzyme.To enable efficient industrial application of whole-cell catalysis,an environmental friendly heating approach is highly desired.Inspired by the light harvest by blackbody materials,in this paper,we introduced a photothermal approach for harnessing the photon energy for enhanced whole-cell catalysis.A blackbody porous sponge(BPS)with excellent photothermal conversion efficiency was prepared as a bioreactor.Escherichia coli expressed with a thermophilic enzyme(β-glucosidase)was utilized as a model whole-cell catalyst.Moreover,the photothermal properties of the BPS and lightassisted whole-cell catalysis were systematically investigated,demonstrating promising application prospects.

A POSSIBLE BLACKBODY TEMPERATURE INDICATOR OF QUASARS

Malkan and Sargent have fitted the continuum of quasars and Seyfert galaxies by use of three spectra, （1） a power law with slope α≈1.1 (fv∝v-α); （2） a blackbody with temperature between 23,000 and 30,000 K and （3） a Balmer continuum. Therefore, if the temperature of the blackbody component changes, its peak will move and the slope of the composite spectrum will be also changed. We can see clearly from Fig. 5 of the paper referred to in Ref. [1] that the contribu-

Suppress Blackbody Radiation Shift with Two Clock Ytterbium Clock Transition

In order to suppress the blackbody radiation shift of ytterbium(Yb) lattice clock, we adopt the idea of the synthetic frequency by means of the two clock transitions which correspond to the static values of the scalar and tensor dipole polarizabilities with the AMBiT software package. We have obtained the synthetic wavelength around 647.7 nm and expected when the clock laser is working at the synthetic wavelength, the systematic uncertainty due to the BBR shift can be suppressed at the level of 10–18 or even lower.

Dynamics of Optical Bistability with Kerr-nonlinear Blackbody Radiation Reservoir

In this paper we investigate the nonlinear dynamics for optical bistabile(OB) model of homogeneously broadened two-level atomic medium interacting with a single mode of the ring cavity in the presence of a Kerr-nonlinear blackbody(KNB) radiation reservoir. We show the impact of the relative temperature of the reservoir on the transition between the dynamical states via bifurcation diagrams that represents the relation between maximum values of the output field and the relative temperature for fixed input field. Specifically, decreasing the relative temperature(T_b)causes the system to bifurcate from periodic to chaotic behavior and in turn reverts back to periodic behavior with further decrease of T_b. Varying atomic detuning leads to a change in the nature of the dynamic transition between the system's states from self pulsing to chaotic behavior.

The Origin of Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

This paper explains the Olbers paradox and the origin of cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) from the viewpoint of the quantum redshift effect. The derived formula dispels the Olbers paradox, confirming that the CMBR originates from the superposition of light radiated by stars in the whole universe, not the relic of the Big Bang. The dark-night sky and CMBR are all caused by Hubble redshift—the physical mechanism is the quantum redshift of the photon rather than cosmic expansion. So this theory supports the infinite and steady cosmology.

Quantum Unruh Effect on Singularities of Black Holes

It is generally believed that matter inside or once entering a black hole will gravitationally fall into the center and form a size-less singularity, where the density goes to infinity and the spacetime breaks down with infinite curvature or gravitation. In accordance to the Unruh effect, one of the most surprizing predictions of quantum field theory, however, it is found from this study that such singularity cannot be actually formed because it violates the law of energy conservation. The total Unruh radiation energy of the size-less singularity is shown to be infinite, much greater than that the collapsing matter can generate. All the energies of the collapsing matter including the gravitational potential energy, deducted, are far below the Unruh radiation energy, increased, for the collapsing matter to form the singularity. The collapsing matter actually formed is shown to be not a size-less singular point but a small sphere with a finite radius, which is found to be dependent of the mass of the singularity sphere, approximately proportional to the square root of the mass. The radius of the singularity sphere cannot be zero, unless the mass also approaches to zero. The result obtained from this study not only provides us a quantum solution to the problem of black hole singularity, but also leads to profound implications to the spacetime and cosmology. The Unruh effect excludes a black hole to form a size-less singularity, which has a finite mass but infinite density, curvature, and Unruh radiation energy. A point-like or size-less singularity can only be massless and naked.

Energy Shift of H-Atom Electrons Due to Gibbons-Hawking Thermal Bath

The electromagnetic shift of energy levels of H-atom electrons is determined by calculating an electron coupling to the Gibbons-Hawking ectromagnetic field thermal bath. Energy shift of electrons in H-atom is determined in the framework of non-relativistic quantum mechanics.

Calculations of atomic polarizability for beryllium using MCDHF method

Based on the fully relativistic multiconfiguration Dirac-Hartree-Fock(MCDHF)method and the corresponding program package GRASP2018,a new program for calculating the polarizabilities is developed.As the first application,the static electric-dipole polarizabilities of the ground state 2s^(2)^(1)S_(0) and excited state 2s2p^(3)P_(0) of beryllium are calculated.By means of these polarizabilities,the blackbody radiation(BBR)shift of the 2s2p^(3)P_(0)→2s^(2)^(1)S_(0)clock transition is determined.The present results agree very well with other available theoretical results.

The Principles of Causal Conspiracy

The human mind understands logical processes and causality and formulates theories based on logical descriptions of empirical evidence. The Principles of Causal Conspiracy is based on defining information as logical charges similar to electric charges. Such information charges can be modeled in the vacuum of a quantum probability firmament as symmetry of quantum charges with a zero net charge. Observation of a state lifts one of these charges in a M&oumlbius transformation from a multipolar field of possibilities that maximizes a local monopole field that is observable. In the first of several papers, I introduce new and profound principles, the Principles of Causal Conspiracy, to provide a consistent epistemology for quantum theory, relativity theory and all the known sciences.

Black Sun: Ocular Invisibility of Relativistic Luminous Astrophysical Bodies

Considered as a gedanken experiment are the conditions under which the relativistic Doppler shifting of visible electromagnetic radiation to beyond the human ocular range could reduce the incident radiance of the source, and render a luminous astrophysical body (LAB) invisible to a naked eye. This paper determines the proper distance as a function of relativistic velocity at which a luminous object attains ocular invisibility.

Quantum Unruh Effect on Radiation of Black Holes

The quantum Unruh effect on radiation of a gravitational object including a black hole is analyzed and calculated. It is surprisingly found that the well-known Hawking radiation of a black hole is not physical. Applying the Stephan-Boltzmann law with the use of the Unruh radiation temperature at the surface of a black hole to calculate the power of radiation of the black hole is conceptually unphysical. This is because the Unruh radiation temperature results from the gravitational field of the object rather than from the thermal motion of matter of the object, so that the Stephan-Boltzmann law is not applicable. This paper shows that the emission power of Unruh radiation from a gravitational object should be calculated in terms of the rate of increase of the total Unruh radiation energy outside the object. The result obtained from this study indicates that a gravitational object can emit Unruh radiation when the variation of its mass and radius satisfies an inequality of dM/M > 1.25dR/R. For a black hole, the emission of Unruh radiation does not occur unless it can loose its mass (dM < 0). The emission power of Unruh radiation is only an extremely tiny part of the rate of mass-energy loss if the black hole is not extremely micro-sized. This study turns down our traditional understanding of the Hawking radiation and thermodynamics of black holes.

Absolute radiometric calibration of CBERS-02 IRMSS thermal band

Based on the laboratory calibration before launch of CBERS-02 IRMSS thermal infrared channel, the onboard blackbody calibration, the radiometric cross- calibration against TERRA MODIS corresponding channel and the in-flight field calibration at Lake Qinghai: water surface radiometric calibration test site of China on Aug. 17, 2004 are carried out in this research. When making onboard blackbody calibration of CBERS-02 IRMSS, it is necessary to understand inside structures and light path in IRMSS camera and receive and process calibration blackbody signals at normal and high temperatures. Onboard blackbody calibration results of each detector are very important to relative radiometric calibration of images processing and absolute radiometric calibration of each detector. In-flight field calibration mainly contains field experiments, obtaining synchronous images, spectrum marching and MODTRAN radiative transmi- ssion computation. Radiometric cross-calibration of CBERS-02 IRMSS thermal band against TERRA MODIS selected 6 times synchronous images of two sensors passing through Lake Qinghai and Lake Taihu from August to December, 2004 to compute the cross calibration data. Combining the in-flight field calibration and radiometric cross calibration data, the absolute radiometric calibration coefficients are calculated by the linear regression method. This new calibration model can obviously control the radiometric calibration uncertainties aroused by the single point method used in the in-flight calibration of CBERS-02 IRMSS, this kind of sensors cannot receive the cosmic background radiation. In this research, the radiometric calibration coefficients obtained through the linear regression model are 8.53 (gain, unit: DN/W m?2sr?1μm?1) and 44.92 (offset, unit: DN).

TBB-REVEALED ANNUAL CYCLE FEATURES OF TROPICAL LFO

In the context of 1980—1992 JMA(Japan Meteorological Agency)GMS TBB gridded dataset,study is undertaken of annual cycle features of FFT-derived window power spectrum averaged overthe record length,with localized space/time characteristics of low-frequency oscillation(LFO)inthe tropical atmosphere investigated alongside possible causes.It turns out that the LFO takes onsurprisingly noticeable annual cycle features marked by a wider variable range of the LFO periodsover northern tropics than the southern counterpart and equatorial vicinity.In addition,on thewhole,the signals are more intense in the Northern Hemisphere during summer/autumn and atequatorial/southern latitudes when northern winter/spring occur as well.Also,not all thesefeatures are identical for different segments at the same latitudes,displaying signatures on a localbasis,and the spatial/temporal locality can be qualitatively interpreted in terms of nonlinearinteraction between tropical waves,and modulation of diabatic heating on the LFO periods.

The application analyses for primary spectrum pyrometer

In the applications of primary spectrum pyrometry,based on the dynamic range and the minimum sensibility of the sensor,the application issues,such as the measurement range and the measurement partition,were investigated through theoretical analyses. For a developed primary spectrum pyrometer,the theoretical predictions of measurement range and the distributions of measurement partition were presented through numerical simulations. And the measurement experiments of high-temperature blackbody and standard temperature lamp were processed to further verify the above theoretical analyses and numerical results. Therefore the research in the paper provides the helpful supports for the applications of primary spectrum pyrometer and other radiation pyrometers.

A CASE OF MESOSCALE CONVECTIVE COMPLEX EVOLVING INTO A VORTEX

A case of mesoscale convective complex(MCC)which evolved into a vortex is documented in this paper.As theMCC entered into the dissipating phase,a well-defined spirally banded structure became visible in the satellite image.The blackbody temperature(TBB)of the residual cold-cloud-shield indicates the vortex existed in the layer from 400 to250 hPa.According to the upper air analysis,the upper level vortex was an anticyclone.The MCC-generated vortex wasvisualized in the satellite images because it was located in the subtropical high where the wind field was very weak.