A three-dimensional feature extraction-based method for coal cleat characterization using X-ray μCT and its application to a Bowen Basin coal specimen

Cleats are the dominant micro-fracture network controlling the macro-mechanical behavior of coal.Improved understanding of the spatial characteristics of cleat networks is therefore important to the coal mining industry.Discrete fracture networks(DFNs)are increasingly used in engineering analyses to spatially model fractures at various scales.The reliability of coal DFNs largely depends on the confidence in the input cleat statistics.Estimates of these parameters can be made from image-based three-dimensional(3D)characterization of coal cleats using X-ray micro-computed tomography(m CT).One key step in this process,after cleat extraction,is the separation of individual cleats,without which the cleats are a connected network and statistics for different cleat sets cannot be measured.In this paper,a feature extraction-based image processing method is introduced to identify and separate distinct cleat groups from 3D X-ray m CT images.Kernels(filters)representing explicit cleat features of coal are built and cleat separation is successfully achieved by convolutional operations on 3D coal images.The new method is applied to a coal specimen with 80 mm in diameter and 100 mm in length acquired from an Anglo American Steelmaking Coal mine in the Bowen Basin,Queensland,Australia.It is demonstrated that the new method produces reliable cleat separation capable of defining individual cleats and preserving 3D topology after separation.Bedding-parallel fractures are also identified and separated,which has his-torically been challenging to delineate and rarely reported.A variety of cleat/fracture statistics is measured which not only can quantitatively characterize the cleat/fracture system but also can be used for DFN modeling.Finally,variability and heterogeneity with respect to the core axis are investigated.Significant heterogeneity is observed and suggests that the representative elementary volume(REV)of the cleat groups for engineering purposes may be a complex problem requiring careful consideration.

The impact of cleats on hydraulic fracture initiation and propagation in coal seams

Cleats are systematic, natural fractures in coal seams. They account for most of the permeability and much of the porosity of coalbed methane reservoirs and can have a significant effect on the success of hydraulic fracturing stimulation. Laboratory hydraulic fracturing experiments were conducted on coal blocks under true tri-axial stress to simulate fracturing stimulation of coal seams. Fractures were initiated by injecting a water gel with luminous yellow fluorescent dye into an open hole section of a wellbore. The impact of cleats on initiation and propagation of hydraulic fractures in coal seams is discussed. Three types of hydraulic fracture initiation and propagation pattern were observed in this study： 1） The hydraulic fracture initiated and then grew along the cleat. 2） The hydraulic fracture initiated along a butt cleat or a fracture （natural or induced by drilling） oriented roughly in the minimum horizontal stress direction, then turned to propagate along the first face cleat that it encountered or gradually turned towards the maximum horizontal stress direction. 3） The hydraulic fracture initiated perpendicular to the minimum stress and, when it encountered a face cleat, tended to propagate along the cleats if the extension direction does not deviate greatly （〈20° as determined in this paper） from the maximum horizontal stress direction. When a coal seam is hydraulically fractured, the resulting fracture network is controlled by the combined effect of several factors： cleats determine the initiation and extension path of the fracture, the in-situ stress state dominates the main direction of the fracture zone and bedding planes impede fracture height growth.

Mathematical Simulation of Cleat Porosity in Coal Reservoir

Cleat system of coal reservoir is one of the main migrating passage of coalbed methane (CBM). The development of cleat system has important influence on both the preservation of CBM in geological history and surface CBM exploitation. The relationship among cleat porosity, net confine pressure, rock mechanics, coal seam’s occurrence and other factors of coal reservoir is established and simulated based on the energy conservation law. The result indicates that the net confine pressure and buried depth of coalbed are the major control factors of cleat porosity. The extensive stress and abnormal high reservoir pressure can make cleats open thus increase tbe cleat porosity; while the overburden pressure and compressive stress make cleats close and decrease the cleat porosity. The influence of occurrence (dip and dip angle) of coalbed on cleat porosity depends on the change of the above mentioned factors. It is also affected by rock mechanics parameters to some extent, while water-gas saturation and reservoir temperature have little effect on cleat porosity. The above conclusions are of great significance in geological exploration and surface exploitation region determination of CBM.

The coal cleat system:A new approach to its study

After a general analysis regarding the concept of coal ＂cleat system＂, its genetic origin and practical applications to coalbed methane （CBM） commercial production and to C02 geological sequestration projects, the authors have developed a method to answer, quickly and accurately in accordance with the industrial practice and needs, the following yet unanswered questions： （1） how to define the spatial orientation of the different classes of cleats presented in a coal seam and （2） how to determine the frequency of their connectivites. The new available and presented techniques to answer these questions have a strong computer based tool （geographic information system, GIS）, able to build a complete georeferentiated database, which will allow to three-dimensionally locate the laboratory samples in the coalfield. It will also allow to better understand the coal cleat system and consequently to recognize the best pathways to gas flow through the coal seam. Such knowledge is considered crucial for understanding what is likely to be the most efficient opening of cleat network, then allowing the injection with the right spatial orientation, of pressurized fluids in order to directly drain the maximum amount of gas flow to a CBM exploitation well. The method is also applicable to the CO2 geological sequestration technologies and operations corresponding to the injection of CO2 sequestered from industrial plants in coal seams of abandoned coal mines or deep coal seams.

Dependence of fluid flow on cleat aperture distribution and aperture–length scaling: a case study from Gondwana coal seams of Raniganj Formation, Eastern India

Dimensions and mutual relationships amongst fracture(cleat)parameters such as maximum aperture width,average aperture width,length,spacing etc.control the connectivity within a fracture network and the fluid flow in a coal seam as the matrix permeability,here,is negligible.In this paper,we document cleat size distributions and investigate length–aperture relationships from coals of Raniganj coalfield in Eastern India.This coalfield has a proven extractable reserve of six billion tons of coal and holds immense potential to be one of the largest coal bed methane fields serving India’s growing energy needs.Here,cleat length(L)correlates with corresponding maximum aperture width(Dmax)in a power-law function with an exponent of 0.84(DmaxαL0.84)instead of the commonly observed exponents of 1 or 0.5 applicable for other natural‘opening-mode’fractures.The conventional wisdom pertains that laminar fluid flow(Q)through an isolated,smooth-walled,parallel-plate fracture,embedded in an impermeable matrix,is directly proportional to the cube of its aperture width(b,equivalent to Davg;cubic law:Qαb3).This assumes a linear relationship between length and fracture aperture.However,the modified relationship between cleat length and average aperture width changes the cubic law applicable for Raniganj coal seam and now fluid flow correlates with aperture width in a power-law function with an exponent of 4.25(Qαb4.25)instead of 3(cube).Such simplifications will come handy for the modeling and estimation of fluid flow as it will reduce the effort of cleat length measurement which is anyway difficult and can be misleading due to the risk of undersampling.

鄂尔多斯盆地石炭系本溪组煤岩气地质特征与勘探突破

通过对鄂尔多斯盆地石炭系本溪组煤岩分布、煤岩储层特征、煤质特征、煤岩气特征以及煤岩气资源和富集规律等方面开展系统研究,评价其勘探潜力。研究表明:①煤岩气是有别于煤层气的优质天然气资源,在埋深、气源、储层、含气性、碳同位素组成等方面具有独特特征;②本溪组煤岩分布面积达16×10^(4)km^(2),厚度2~25m,以原生结构的光亮和半亮煤为主,挥发分和灰分含量低,煤质好;③中高阶煤岩TOC值为33.49%~86.11%,平均值为75.16%,演化程度高(Ro为1.2%~2.8%),生气能力强,气体稳定碳同位素值高(δ^(13)C_(1)值为-37.6‰~-16.0‰,δ^(13)C_(2)值为-21.7‰~-14.3‰);④深层煤岩发育气孔、有机质孔和无机矿物孔等基质孔隙,与割理、裂缝共同构成良好储集空间,储层孔隙度为0.54%~10.67%,平均值为5.42%,渗透率为(0.001~14.600)×10^(-3)μm^(2),平均值为2.32×10^(-3)μm^(2);⑤纵向上发育5种煤岩气聚散组合,其中煤岩-泥岩聚气组合与煤岩-灰岩聚气组合最为重要,封闭条件好,录井全烃气测峰值高;⑥构建了广覆式分布的中高阶煤岩持续生气、煤岩基质孔和割理裂缝规模储集、源-储一体赋存、致密岩盖层密闭封堵的煤岩气富集模式,存在煤岩侧向尖灭体、透镜体、低幅度构造、鼻状构造和岩性自封闭5种高效聚气类型。⑦依据煤岩气地质特征评价划分出8个区带,估算埋深超过2000m的煤岩气资源量超过12.33×10^(12)m^(3)。上述认识指导风险勘探部署,两口井实施后分别获得工业气流,推动进一步部署预探井和评价井,获得规模突破,提交超万亿方预测储量和超千亿方探明储量,对中国天然气效益增储和高效开发具有重大意义。

钢筋增强钢夹板-螺栓连接胶合木梁受力性能试验研究

为改善钢夹板-螺栓连接胶合木梁的刚度在到达极限荷载55%~70%区间内存在减小的问题,设计制作了3组共12根钢筋增强钢夹板-螺栓连接胶合木梁,通过改变配筋率进行三分点加载试验,并与相同设计参数的胶合木梁和钢夹板-螺栓连接胶合木梁进行对比试验。观察记录试件的受力过程和破坏现象,实测各组试件的极限承载力、荷载位移曲线和应变曲线,对比分析增强筋对各组试件破坏机理、抗弯刚度和极限承载力的影响规律。试验结果表明:与钢夹板-螺栓连接胶合木梁相比,钢筋增强钢夹板-螺栓连接胶合木梁的抗弯承载力和整体弯曲刚度在增强筋的作用下均有显著提高,钢夹板-螺栓连接试验梁在到达极限荷载55%~70%区间内刚度减少问题得到明显改善。钢筋增强钢夹板-螺栓连接试验梁的破坏形式随着配筋率的增大,逐渐由受拉脆性破坏向受拉延性破坏再到受压延性破坏进行转变。增强梁截面应变沿高度方向的分布基本符合平截面假定。依据试验数据和理论推导,得出了钢筋增强钢夹板-螺栓连接试验梁抗弯计算公式,其理论结果与试验结果吻合较好。研究表明,在钢夹板-螺栓连接胶合木梁受拉区配置增强筋可以有效改善其后期刚度减少的问题,并提升其抗弯性能,可为此类连接木梁的增强提供理论依据和试验支撑。

基于分段压裂水平井的临兴区块煤层气开发数值模拟

煤层气作为非常规天然气的重要组成部分,其高效开发技术已引起广泛关注,而水平井分段压裂技术是目前非常规天然气开发的关键技术之一,因而有必要对基于分段压裂水平井的区块煤层气开发进行数值模拟,以期提高煤层气的开发效果以及实现工艺优化。基于煤层气开发流固耦合数学模型,考虑煤储层中割理系统发育与分布,以临兴区块为研究对象,建立水平井分段压裂物理模型,开展煤层气储层压力与产能数值模拟,并对煤层压力变化以及产气效果影响因素进行分析。结果表明:水平井分段压裂开发煤层气在365 d左右可实现较远区域控制,且水平井井周压力较稳定。割理条数、裂缝参数的增加可提高煤层气的产气效果,但需考虑水平井分段压裂技术的开发成本以及井间干扰等因素的影响。基于分段压裂水平井的区块煤层气开发数值模拟模型可为实现煤层气高效开发的水平井分段压裂技术提供参考与指导。

考虑割理面时煤层造斜段坍塌压力变化规律研究

在武威盆地太原组水平井钻进作业时,依据井史数据调研发现,煤层段卡钻、井径扩大、钻具掉落等井壁坍塌导致的井下复杂事故发生,严重制约了煤层气勘探开发的进程。由于煤岩交错割理性(面割理、端割理)弱结构面发育,使煤岩在造斜钻进时井壁破坏在力学上呈现为非连续性和非均质性。建立了考虑弱面的井壁坍塌数学模型。通过分析煤岩矿物成分、微宏观结构,确定煤岩井壁坍塌为力学机制占主导因素,得出割理导致的煤岩碎裂成块是井壁失稳的根本原因,建议在后续煤层钻井中优化井眼轨迹、优化钻井液性能进行井壁防塌,并引入煤岩井壁坍塌实时监测系统。

Measurement of stiffness and damping coefficient of rubber tractor tires using dynamic cleat test based on point contact model

The ride vibration of a tractor is affected mostly by the stiffness and damping coefficient of the seat suspension,cabin suspension,cabin rubber mounts,and rubber tires.However,in the case of rubber tractor tires,the stiffnesses and damping coefficients have not been researched adequately thus far,and it is not simple to measure these characteristics.In this study,a method for measuring and analyzing the stiffnesses and damping coefficients of rubber tractor tires,which were the input parameters for the tractor ride vibration simulation,was proposed.The cleat test,proposed in this study,did not require separate and complicated test equipment,unlike the conventional methods.The test was conducted simply by measuring acceleration under the driving conditions of the vehicle without detaching tires from the vehicle body or setting up additional test equipment.Based on the ground-vertical acceleration data obtained,the stiffness was calculated using the logarithmic decrement method,and the damping coefficient was calculated using least squares exponential curve fitting.The result of the cleat test indicated that the front tires had stiffnesses of 486.08-570.69 kN/m and damping coefficients of 4.02-4.52 kN·s/m;the rear tires had stiffnesses of 409.42-483.79 kN/m and damping coefficients of 2.21-2.67 kN·s/m.During the test,40 mm height cleats were installed on the track and the speed of the tractor was set to 7 and 10 km/h,which were the most common speeds during the operation.This study is meaningful in that it has presented a new method that improves the practicality of results,reduces cost,and simplifies the test process for measuring the stiffnesses and damping coefficients of rubber tractor tires.

基于相控阵超声的线路带夹板焊缝轨底检测研究

为解决带夹板焊缝线路探伤检测效率较低的问题,提出了一种基于相控阵超声的线路带夹板焊缝轨底检测方法,通过将相控阵探头放置于轨底下表面来避免夹板的拆装,同时利用相控阵探头多角度扫查来减少轨底焊缝扫查工序,从而提高检测效率。首先利用仿真研究该方法对轨底缺陷的检测覆盖性,然后针对轨底焊缝检测特点设计相控阵探头,将探头放置于轨底下表面来完成轨底焊缝检测,随后基于设计的钢轨缺陷试块进行试验测试。结果表明:该探头可实现对轨底焊缝位置7个缺陷的全覆盖检测,且检测信噪比均大于17dB。

通许深部煤层气测试压裂技术探索及应用

通许区块山西组发育深部煤层,与浅层煤层气相比含气量高、游离气丰富,割理裂隙发育,压裂施工过程中滤失大、易形成短缝、加砂困难。前期采用浅层煤层气常规压裂技术压裂施工压力高,加砂困难,压后效果不理想。针对深部煤层储层特征及改造难点,开展了深部煤层气压前注入压降和原地应力测试,获取煤层参数,为压裂设计参数优化提供依据;同时,通过室内实验、数值模拟研究,探索试验了饱填砂压裂技术。现场A井山1煤层采用“大排量、大规模、饱填砂”体积压裂设计思路完成压裂施工,施工排量最高20 m 3/min,入地液量4315 m 3,加砂量347 m 3,是常规压裂加砂强度的7倍,压后最高日产气量7299 m 3,累计产气量71509 m 3,效果显著。该技术的试验成功,为深部煤层气压裂提供了技术指导。

压裂液矿化度对支撑裂缝及裂隙内煤粉运移的影响

在煤层气井水力压裂阶段,支撑裂缝内煤粉沉积以及裂隙内煤粉运移,将导致支撑裂缝和裂隙渗透率降低,影响水力压裂改造效果以及后续的煤层气井排采效果。为有效疏通支撑裂缝并避免裂隙堵塞,从优化压裂液矿化度的视角,提出了水力压裂阶段支撑裂缝及裂隙内煤粉防控新方法。基于石英砂充填柱和无烟煤样,分别开展了矿化度逐级递减条件下支撑裂缝及裂隙内煤粉运移实验,分析了煤粉运移对矿化度变化的响应特征;采用扩展Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek(DLVO)理论对煤粉运移进行了模拟,揭示了矿化度对煤粉运移的影响机制;并在此基础上,探究了兼顾支撑裂缝及裂隙内煤粉防控的最优矿化度范围。研究结果表明:支撑裂缝及裂隙内煤粉运移均存在临界矿化度现象,当矿化度低于临界矿化度时,支撑裂缝渗透率急剧增大,裂隙渗透率骤然降低,并伴有大量的煤粉产出;支撑裂缝内煤粉运移临界矿化度高于裂隙内煤粉运移临界矿化度,支撑剂表面电负性强于裂隙,而其疏水性弱于裂隙,是导致支撑裂缝内煤粉运移临界矿化度偏高的主要原因;随矿化度的逐级降低,煤粉与通道间的双电层斥力不断增大,当矿化度降至临界矿化度时,双电层斥力开始大于Lifshitz-van der Waals引力和Lewis酸碱引力之和,诱发煤粉运移;理论模型预测的支撑裂缝及裂隙内煤粉运移临界矿化度均与实验结果一致,证实了模型的可靠性。在水力压裂阶段,可将压裂液矿化度设计在支撑裂缝与裂隙内煤粉运移临界矿化度之间,从而促使支撑裂缝内煤粉产出,并抑制裂隙内煤粉运移,达到兼顾支撑裂缝及裂隙内煤粉防控的目的。

低应力下原煤各向异性渗透特性试验研究

为了探究低应力下原煤的各向异性渗透特性,以漳村煤矿、亭南煤矿、新景煤矿煤样为研究对象,利用改进的三轴渗流试验装置,开展了沿同一试样面割理、端割理和垂直层理方向,恒围压轴压、变孔隙压力下的渗透试验。结果表明:在恒围压轴压下,通过煤样的流量随着渗透压差的增大而增大,在相同的渗透压差下,流量大小与渗流的方向紧密相关;在相同平均孔隙压力下,面割理方向渗透率略大于端割理方向而远大于垂直层理方向;低应力下面割理、端割理方向的渗透率相差不大,平行层理面内渗透率相近并非偶然,煤的渗透具有横观各向同性特征;煤体应力增大是导致端割理和面割理方向渗透率产生差异的主要原因。

大规模缝网压裂在深部煤层气中的应用

【目的】深部煤层气因其储层地质复杂及开发方式不成熟是目前开采效率低的主要原因,需对其开发方式进行研究。【方法】针对深部煤层气开发特点及复杂性,基于理论分析、压裂试验和现场应用等研究,证明深部煤层气在大规模缝网压裂工艺下可高效开发。【结果】研究表明,深部煤储层中割理和酸可溶物比例为缝网压裂提供了前提,储层中割理越发育、脆性矿物越多及水平应力差越小,越有利于裂缝的扩展与延伸,施工作业中低黏度压裂液、大排量压裂、适量的加砂量与酸液用量可增大储层改造的体积,有利于缝网大规模形成。【结论】将进一步增大施工排量、提高用砂量及采用组合型支撑剂等措施应用到鄂尔多斯DJ区块,可促进深部煤层气高效开发。

核磁共振实验技术在煤孔径分析中的应用

通过对唐山矿、赵各庄矿、望峰岗矿所采27个煤样进行T2核磁共振实验,对实验产生的T2核磁共振谱进行分析,分别得到了三个煤矿的孔隙、裂隙发育情况以及孔隙、裂隙之间的连通性情况。本研究为孔、裂隙的研究及煤层气的赋存和开发利用提供了一种新方法。

煤层割理与煤级的关系

通过对煤中割理的宏观观测、光学显微镜、扫描电镜观测等实验 ,详细研究了割理与煤级的关系 .指出煤中割理密度随煤级的增高存在 3种变化趋势 :①随煤级增高割理密度增加 ,在中煤级阶段达极大值 ,之后逐渐降低 ;②随煤级增高密度增加 ,在中煤级阶段达极大值后 ,随煤级进一步增加密度保持不变 ;③在中煤级阶段密度达极大值后 ,随煤级增高逐渐降低 ,但在反射率大于 4 %时 ,保持不变 .同时探讨了割理的成因与闭合机理 .

煤割理压缩实验及渗透率数值模拟

基于煤割理压缩实验 ,建立了应力与割理宽度之间的数学模型 .通过对山西沁水盆地中～南部煤储层现代地应力的数值模拟 ,借鉴裂隙岩体渗透率张量公式 ,结合浅部煤割理观测资料 。

中国煤储层渗透率分级方案探讨

统计分析了国内外不同煤阶和地区的煤储层渗透率数据,显示国外相同煤阶煤储层的渗透率要比我国高1~2个数量级,且我国不同煤阶煤储层渗透率整体上差异不大。研究表明,煤储层的渗透性主要受现今地应力强度和构造史及与其伴随的流体活动史决定的煤体结构、割理发育程度和割理充填状况等因素控制,高应力、复杂煤体结构和割理充填,是中国低渗透煤储层的基本成因机理。基于我国煤储层渗透率分布特点和不同渗透率条件下单井产量的分析,将有效煤储层的渗透率下限定为0.01×10^(-15)m2,按渗透率将有效煤储层划分为低渗(k=0.01×10^(-15)~0.1×10^(-15)m2)、中渗(k=0.1×10^(-15)~0.5×10^(-15)m2)、中高渗(k=0.5×10^(-15)~1×10^(-15)m2)、高渗(k=1×10^(-15)~5×10^(-15)m2)和超高渗(k>5×10^(-15)m2)5个等级,煤层气井的实际产量除受渗透率影响外,还受到煤层厚度、含气量、压裂参数、地质构造、煤系地层含水性和排采工作制度等其他因素的影响,随着我国煤层气开发技术的进步,低渗煤储层(k=0.01×10^(-15)~0.1×10^(-15)m2)经合理配套的压裂技术和排采方案仍可获得理想的产气量。

煤中裂隙的分类

通过对华北地区的乌兰、汝箕沟、柳林、晋城、平顶山、焦作、济源、新安、义马等地区主采煤层的井下观测和室内光学、扫描电子显微镜测试 ,提出了一套系统的煤中裂隙的分类方案。根据形态和成因 ,将煤中裂隙分为 4类 ,7组和 17型 。