Modified Atmospheric Packaging and Its Effect on Postharvest Cannabis Quality

Cannabis sativa L. is used as fiber, food, and medicine in several countries. Though it is illegal for recreational use in most of the world, there are some countries that have legalized production and sale. There is a lot of research on production of cannabis, but less so on storage technologies. Cannabis contains several high value compounds, such as cannabinoids and terpenoids, that are susceptible to degradation via light, temperature, and oxygen. Several studies have explored temperature and light, and industry has adjusted accordingly. However, less is known about oxygen-induced degradation. Biochemical studies have demonstrated oxidative degradation of high value compounds, and many producers use some form of modified atmospheric packaging (MAP) for storage. However, the efficacy of MAP is unclear. The objective of this paper is to review our current understanding of MAP in postharvest cannabis storage and identify avenues where additional research is needed.

Medicinal cannabis products for the treatment of acute pain

For thousands of years,medicinal cannabis has been used for pain treatment,but its use for pain management is still controversial.Meta-analysis of the literature has shown contrasting results on the addition of cannabinoids to opioids compared with placebo/other active agents to reduce pain.Clinical studies are mainly focused on medicinal cannabis use in chronic pain management,for which the analgesic effect has been proven in many studies.This review focuses on the potential use of medical cannabis for acute pain management in preclinical studies,studies on healthy subjects and the few pioneering studies in the clinical setting.

Should gastroenterologists prescribe cannabis? The highs, the lows and the unknowns

Cannabis,commonly known as marijuana,is a drug extracted from the Cannabis plant known for its psychotropic and medicinal properties.It has been used for healing purposes during ancient times,although its psychoactive components led to its restricted use in medicine.Nonetheless,cannabis is found to have modulatory effects on the endocannabinoid system exhibiting its medicinal role in the gastrointestinal(GI)system.Emerging animal and human studies demonstrate the influential effects of cannabis on a variety of GI diseases including inflammatory bowel disease,motility disorders and GI malignancies.It also has a regulatory role in GI symptoms including nausea and vomiting,anorexia,weight gain,abdominal pain,among others.However,both its acute and chronic use can lead to undesirable side effects such as dependency and addiction,cognitive impairment and cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.We will discuss the role of cannabis in the GI system as well as dosing strategies to help guide gastroenterologists to assess its efficacy and provide patient counseling before prescription of medical marijuana.

Study on the Anti-inflammatory and Repairing Effects of Cannabis Sativa Leaf Extract by Epikutis Model Substitution

To explore the anti-inflammatory effect of Cannabis sativa leaf extracts and their repair to damaged skin,a 3D epidermal model(Epikutis®)was used.During the experiment,after epithelial cell surface was pretreated with SLS for 24 h,the anti-inflammatory effect and repair effect of Cannabis sativa leaf extract were observed by testing tissue viability and the representative pro-inflammatory factors such as IL-1α,TNF-αand IL-8.The tissue viability was detected by the MTT test.The results showed that the Cannabis sativa leaf extract effectively inhibited the secretion of inflammatory factors IL-1α,TNF-αand IL-8,and the tissue viability of the skin model was significantly improved after using the sample.The Cannabis sativa leaf extract has a repairing effect on skin barrier damage by inhibiting skin inflammatory reaction.

A Comparative Study on Hemp(Cannabis sativa)Essential Oil Extraction Using Traditional and Advanced Techniques

A comparative study of Cannabis sativa(Hemp)essential constituents obtained by using Supercritical Fluid Extraction(SCFE),Steam Distillation(SD)and Hydrodistillation(HD)is presented here.The optimized extraction temperatures were 130,110and 50℃for hydrodistillation,steam distillation and supercritical fluid extraction respectively.The essential oil of C.sativa was analyzed by using Gas chromatography mass spectrometry(GC-MS).A total of 33,30and 31components have been identified in HD,SD and SCFE respectively.Yield of essential oil using SCFE(0.039%)was more than HD(0.025%)and SD(0.035%)extraction respectively.The main component of sesquiterpenes obtained by hydrodistillation at 130℃with their percentages included caryophyllene(40.58%),trans-α-bergamotene(5.41%),humulene(10.97%),cis-β-farnesene(8.53%)and monoterpenes includedα-pinene(2.13%),d-limonene(6.46%),p-cymol(0.65%)and cineole(2.58%)respectively.The main component of sesquiterpenes obtained by SD steam distillation at110℃including caryophyllene(38.60%)trans-α-bergamotene(4.22%),humulene(10.26%),cis-β-farnesene(6.67%)and monoterpenes includedα-pinene(3.21%),d-limonene(7.07%),p-cymol(2.59%)and cineole(3.88%)whereas the more percentages of major components were obtained by SCFE at 50℃included caryophyllene(44.31%),trans-α-bergamotene(6.79%),humulene(11.97%)cis-β-farnesene(9.71%)and monoterpenes includedα-pinene(0.45%),d-limonene(2.13%)p-cymol(0.19%)and cineole(1.38%)respectively.We found yield/efficiency,chemical composition,quality of the essential oils by supercritical fluid extraction superior in terms of modern,green,saving energy and a rapid approach as compared to traditional techniques.

Determination of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol content of cannabis seizures in Egypt

Objective:To determine the delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol(THC)content of cannabis seizures in Egypt.Methods:Unheated and heated extracts of cannabis seizures were prepared from the dried flowering tops and leaves(marijuana)or from the resin(hashish)and subjected to analysis using high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC).Results:The heated resin extract had the peak of THC in a relative ratio of 31.34%,while extracting the resin directly without heating contained only 18.34%of THC.On the other hand,marijuana showed minimum percentage of THC at 11.188% on heating and 9.55% without heating.Conclusions:These results indicate the high potency of the abused cannabis plant in the illicit Egyptian market.

Overcoming the Bell‐Shaped Dose‐Response of Cannabidiol by Using Cannabis Extract Enriched in Cannabidiol

Cannabidiol (CBD), a major constituent of Cannabis, has been shown to be a powerful anti-inflammatory and anti-anxiety drug, without exerting a psychotropic effect. However, when given either intraperitoneally or orally as a purified product, a bell-shaped dose-response was observed, which limits its clinical use. In the present study, we have studied in mice the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of standardized plant extracts derived from the Cannabis sativa L., clone 202, which is highly enriched in CBD and hardly contains any psychoactive ingredients. In stark contrast to purified CBD, the clone 202 extract, when given either intraperitoneally or orally, provided a clear correlation between the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive responses and the dose, with increasing responses upon increasing doses, which makes this plant medicine ideal for clinical uses. The clone 202 extract reduced zymosan-induced paw swelling and pain in mice, and prevented TNFα production in vivo. It is likely that other components in the extract synergize with CBD to achieve the desired anti-inflammatory action that may contribute to overcoming the bell-shaped dose-response of purified CBD. We therefore propose that Cannabis clone 202 (Avidekel) extract is superior over CBD for the treatment of inflammatory conditions.

Antimicrobial Activity of <i>Cannabis sativa</i>L.

The oil of the seeds, petroleum ether and methanol extracts of the whole plant of Cannabis sativa belonging to the family Cannabinaceae were screened for their antimicrobial activity against two Gram positive organisms (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus), two Gram negative organisms (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and two fungi namely Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans using the cup plate agar diffusion method. The oil of the seeds of Cannabis sativa exerted pronounced antibacterial activity (21 - 28 mm) against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus, moderate activity (15 mm) against Escherichia coli and high activity (16 mm) against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and inactive against the two fungi tested. The petroleum ether extract of the whole plant exhibited pronounced antibacterial activity (23 - 28 mm) against both Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus organisms, high activity (16 mm) against Escherichia coli and inactive against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and both fungi. The methanol extract of the whole plant showed also pronounced antibacterial activity (29 mm) against Bacillus subtilis, low activity (12 mm) against Staphylococcus aureus and high activity (16 - 18 mm) against both Gram negative organisms, inactive against Aspergillus niger and low activity (13 mm) against Candida albicans. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of Cannabis sativa methanol extracts of the seeds and the whole plant against the standard organisms were determined using the agar plate dilution method. The standard organisms were tested against reference antibacterial and antifungal drugs and the results were compared with the activity of the extracts.

Cannabis use history is associated with increased prevalence of ascites among patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease:A nationwide analysis

BACKGROUND Recent studies have revealed the endocannabinoid system as a potential therapeutic target in the management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD).Cannabis use is associated with reduced risk for NAFLD,we hypothesized that cannabis use would be associated with less liver-related clinical complications in patients with NAFLD.AIM To assess the effects of cannabis use on liver-related clinical outcomes in hospitalized patients with NAFLD.METHODS We performed a retrospective matched cohort study based on querying the 2014 National Inpatient Sample(NIS)for hospitalizations of adults with a diagnosis of NAFLD.The NIS database is publicly available and the largest all-payer inpatient database in the United States.The patients with cannabis use were selected as cases and those without cannabis were selected as controls.Case-control matching at a ratio of one case to two controls was performed based on sex,age,race,and comorbidities.The liver-related outcomes such as portal hypertension,ascites,varices and variceal bleeding,and cirrhosis were compared between the groups.RESULTS A total of 49911 weighed hospitalizations with a diagnosis of NAFLD were identified.Of these,3820 cases were selected as the cannabis group,and 7625 noncannabis cases were matched as controls.Patients with cannabis use had a higher prevalence of ascites(4.5%vs 3.6%),with and without cannabis use,P=0.03.The prevalence of portal hypertension(2.1%vs 2.2%),varices and variceal bleeding(1.3%vs 1.7%),and cirrhosis(3.7%vs 3.6%)was not different between the groups,with and without cannabis use,all P>0.05.Hyperlipidemia,race/ethnicity other than White,Black,Asian,Pacific Islander or Native American,and higher comorbidity score were independent risk factors for ascites in the cannabis group.Among non-cannabis users,obesity and hyperlipidemia were independent protective factors against ascites while older age,Native American and higher comorbidity index were independent risk factors for ascites.CONCLUSION Cannabis was associated with higher rates of ascites,but there was no statistical difference in the prevalence of portal hypertension,varices and variceal bleeding,and cirrhosis.

Cannabinoids Production by Hairy Root Cultures of <i>Cannabis sativa</i>L.

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) derivatives are used clinically as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, appetite stimulant, anti-emetic and anti-tumor cannabinoids. THC and its related compounds are at present obtained by extraction from intact Cannabis plants or chemical synthesis, but plant cell cultures may be an alternative source of production. In the present study, hairy root cultures of C. sativa (Cannabaceae) were induced by incubation of aseptically grown callus culture with solid B5 medium supplemented with 4 mg/l naphthaleneacetic acid in darkness at 25°C. Hairy root growth profiles in shake flask, increased periodically during 35 days of growth cycle. The cannabinoid contents produced in minor levels and remained below 2.0 μg/g dry weight. The contents of can-nabinoid were analyzed by liquid chromatography and confirmed by mass spectrometry.

Photosynthetic Performance and Potency of <i>Cannabis sativa</i>L. Grown under LED and HPS Illumination

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be used as an energy efficient alternative to high-pressure sodium (HPS), which have historically been the standard for supplemental lighting in cannabis cultivation. However, there is a lack of scientific understanding in the cannabis industry regarding plant physiology, which has resulted in the adoption of cannabis cultivation methods based on hearsay rather than scientific research. The goals of this study were to 1) compare LED lighting options that are commonly used in the cannabis industry and 2) compare the top performing LED light with an industry standard HPS light. Specifically, three LED lights were compared (California Light Works ((SolarSystem 1100), BIOS Lighting (Icarus Gi2), and Fluence Bioengineering (now Fluence by Osram) (SPYDR xPLUS)), based on light distribution, leaf temperature, and photosynthetic performance indices. The LED versus HPS comparison was based on light response curves measured at photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD) of (0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 1250, 1500, 1750 and 2000 μmol∙m−2∙s−1), carbon assimilation rates (A) μmol CO2 m−2∙s−1 using a LiCor-6800 and resulting cannabinoid potency (THCA). The SPYDR xPLUS-Fluence by Osram had the highest performing LED light used in the LED comparison. At the suggested distance from bulb to canopy in the HPS versus LED comparison (6 inches for LEDs and 4 ft for HPS), carbon assimilation rates displayed a 142% percent increase in plants grown under LED vs. HPS with average photon flux densities of 795 and 298 μmol∙m−2∙s−1 for LED and HPS, respectively. All cultivars of Cannabis sativa L. showed increased cannabinoid potency when grown under LED illumination. The results of this study provide further insight regarding the selection of supplemental light to achieve maximum productivity of Cannabis sativa L.

Preventive effects of cannabis on neurotoxic and hepatotoxic activities of malathion in rat

Objective: To investigate the effect of Cannabis sativa extract on the development of neuroand hepato-toxicity caused by malathion injection in rats. Methods: The extract of Cannabis sativa was obtained from the plant resin by chloroform treatment. Δ~9-Tetrahydrocannabinol content of the extract(20%) was quantified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The doses of cannabis extract were expressed as Δ~9-tetrahydrocannabinol content of 10 or 20 mg/kg. Malathion(150 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally administered followed after 30 min by the cannabis extract(10 or 20 mg/kg, subcutaneously). Rats were euthanized 4 h later. Malondialdehyde(MDA), reduced glutathione(GSH), nitric oxide and paraoxonase-1(PON-1) activity were determined in brain and liver. Brain 5-lipoxygenase and butyrylcholinesterase(BChE) activity were measured as well. Histopathological examination of brain and liver tissue was also performed. Results: Compared to controls, malathion resulted in increased oxidative stress in brain and liver. MDA and nitric oxide concentrations were significantly increased(P<0.05) and GSH significantly decreased with respect to control levels(P<0.05). Malathion also significantly inhibited PON-1 and BChE activities but had no effect on brain 5-lipoxygenase. Brain MDA concentrations were not altered by cannabis treatment. Cannabis at 20 mg/kg, however, caused significant increase in nitric oxide and restored the GSH and PON-1 activity. Brain BChE activity significantly decreased by 26.1%(P<0.05) after treatment with 10 mg/kg cannabis. Cannabis showed no effect on brain 5-lipoxygenase. On the other hand, rats treated with cannabis exhibited significantly higher levels of liver MDA, nitric oxide and PON-1 activity compared with the malathion control group. Rats treated with only malathion exhibited spongiform changes, neuronal damage in the cerebral cortex and degeneration of some Purkinje cells in the cerebellum. There were also hepatic vacuolar degeneration and dilated and congested portal vein. These histopthological changes induced by malathion in brain and liver were reduced to great extent by cannabis administration at 20 mg/kg. Conclusions: Our data suggest that acute treatment with cannabis alleviates the malathion-induced brain and hepatic injury in rats possibly by maintaining the levels of GSH and PON-1 activity.

Acetylcholinesterase,butyrylcholinesterase and paraoxonase 1 activities in rats treated with cannabis,tramadol or both

Objective:To investigate the effect of Cannabis sativa resin and/or tramadol,two commonly drugs of abuse on acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase activities as a possible cholinergic biomarkers of neurotoxicity induced by these agents.Methods:rats were treated with cannabis resin(5,10 or 20 mg/kg)(equivalent to the active constituent A'-tetrahydrocannabinol),tramadol(5,10 and 20 mg/kg) or tramadol(10 mg/kg)combined with cannabis resin(5,10 and 20 mg/kg) subcutaneously daily for 6 weeks.Acetylcholinesterase(AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase(BChE) activities were measured in brain and serum.We also measured the activity of paraoxonase-1(PONl) in serum of rats treated with these agents.Results:(i) AChE activity in brain increased after 10-20 mg/kg cannabis resin(by 16.3%-36.5%).AChE activity in brain did not change after treatment with 5-20 mg/kg tramadol.The administration of both cannabis resin(5,10 or 20 mg/kg) and tramadol(10 mg/kg) resulted in decreased brain AChE activity by 14.1%,12.9%and 13.6%,respectively;(ii) BChE activity in serum was markedly and dose-dependenlly inhibited by cannabis resin(by 60.9%-76.9%).BChE activity also decreased by 17.6%-36.5%by 10-20mg/kg tramadol and by 57.2%-63.9%by the cannabis resin/tramadol combined treatment;(iii)Cannabis resin at dose of 20 mg/kg increased serum PONl activity by 25.7%.In contrast,tramadol given at 5,10 and 20 mg/kg resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in serum PON1 activity by 19%,36.7%,and 46.1%,respectively.Meanwhile,treatment with cannabis resin plus tramadol resulted in 40.2%,35.8%,30.7%inhibition of PONl activity compared to the saline group.Conclusions:these data suggest that cannabis resin exerts different effects on AChE and BChE activities which could contribute to the memory problems and the decline in cognitive function in chronic users.

Gastric acid inhibitory and gastric protective effects of cannabis and cannabinoids

Cannabis sativa has long been known for its psychotropic effect. Only recently with the discovery of the cannabinoid receptors, their endogenous legends and the enzymes responsible for their synthesis and degradation, the role of this ‘endocannabinoid system’ in different pathophysiologic processes is beginning to be delineated. There is evidence that CB1 receptor stimulation with synthetic cannabinoids or Cannabis sativa extracts rich in ?9-tetrahydrocannabinol inhibit gastric acid secretion in humans and in experimental animals. This is specially seen when gastric acid secretion is stimulated by pentagastrin, carbachol or 2 deoxy-D-glucose. Cannabis and/or cannabinoids protect the gastric mucosa against noxious challenge with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ethanol as well as against stress induced mucosal damage. Cannabis/cannabinoids might protect the gastric mucosa by virtue of its antisecretory, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilator properties.

Self-medication of achalasia with cannabis, complicated by a cannabis use disorder

Achalasia is a rare esophagus motility disorder. Medical, endoscopic and surgical treatments are available, but all endorse high relapse rates. No data has been published to date reporting a therapeutic effect of cannabis use neither in achalasia nor on its influence on manometric measurements. We report the case of a patient diagnosed with achalasia. He could benefit from a large panel of therapeutic interventions, but none of them was effective over the time. He first used cannabis at age 20 and identified benefits regarding achalasia symptoms. He maintained regular moderate cannabis use for 9 years, with minimal digestive inconvenience. A manometry performed without cannabis premedication was realized at age 26 and still found a cardiospasm. Cannabis use could explain the gap between functional symptoms assessment and manometry measurement. Further investigations are warranted to explore a therapeutic effect of cannabis in achalasia and possible influence on outcome measurements.

Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Toxicity and Validation of Cannabidiol on Brain Dopamine Levels: An Assessment on Cannabis Duplicity

Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol(THC)of cannabis is the main psychoactive component which is a global significant concern to human health.Evaluation on THC reported its drastic effect on the brain dopaminergic(DAergic)system stimulating mesolimbic DA containing neurons thereby increasing the level of striatal DA.Cannabidiol(CBD),with its anxiolytic and anti-psychotic property,is potent to ameliorate the THC-induced DAergic variations.Legal authorization of cannabis use and its analogs in most countries led to a drastic dispute in the elicitation of cannabis products.With a recent increase in cannabis-induced disorder rates,the present review highlighted the detrimental effects of THC and the effects of CBD on THC induced alterations in DA synthesis and release.Alongside the reported data,uses of cannabis as a therapeutic medium in a number of health complications are also being briefly reviewed.These evaluated reports led to an anticipation of additional research contradictory to the findings of THC and CBD activity in the brain DAergic system and their medical implementations as therapeutics.

Cannabis and male reproduction:Impact on offspring via sperm epigenome

Cannabis is the most widely used drug in theWestern societies particularly among adolescent and young adults.Epidemiological studies demonstrate that men use cannabis more frequently than women with higher risk in developing cannabis-related disorders.Although the direct adverse effects of cannabis on male reproductive functions have been studied both in humans and animal models,the possible long-term risks for the health of the users and their offspring are still an area of active research.

Cannabis Indoor Growing Conditions, Management Practices, and Post-Harvest Treatment: A Review

Cannabis has attracted a new wave of research attention as an herbal medicine. To deliver compliant, uniform, and safe cannabis medicine, growers should optimize growing environments on a site-specific basis. Considering that environmental factors are interconnected, changes in a factor prompts adjustment of other factors. This paper reviews existing work that considers indoor growing conditions (light, temperature, CO2 concentration, humidity, growing media, and nutrient supply), management practices (irrigation, fertilization, pruning & training, and harvest timing), and post-harvest treatment (drying and storage) for cannabis indoor production.

Cannabis and Psychosis: A Review of the Risk Factors Involved

Abundant literature suggests the hypothesis that cannabis use leads to the onset of psychotic symptoms. However, the nature of the association and the causal link remain controversial. This review aims to identify the risk factors involved in the etiopathogenesis of psychosis or psychotic features. Our electronic search found 1653 studies published until March 1st 2020. Longitudinal studies and literature reviews were selected if they addressed specifically the issues of the cannabis/psychosis relationship and the eventual risk factors involved. Our systematic review identified six potential risk factors involved in the association. They are, in decreasing importance, the dose-response relationship (quantity, frequency and duration of cannabis use), the early age of cannabis consumption, genetic susceptibility, childhood trauma, cigarette smoking and urban environment. In contrast, a significant inverse relationship exists between cannabidiol (CBD) and psychosis: cannabidiol is associated with less psychotic symptoms and manifests antipsychotic properties. Further studies are needed to establish a clear causal relationship between cannabis and psychosis and to identify the qualitative and quantitative contribution of specific risk factors on its onset and sustainability.

Determination of Optimal Hormone and Mineral Salts Levels in Tissue Culture Media for Callus Induction and Growth of Industrial Hemp (<i>Cannabis sativa</i>L.)

Historically, industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) has been a valuable source of metabolites and compounds, such as cannabidiols. There is a need for large amounts of plant tissue to be grown under controlled environments, and plant tissue culture is one unique way to yield this tissue. The purposes of this study were to determine: 1) the optimal concentrations (μM)/ratios of auxin:cytokinin in media and;2) the optimal mineral salts formulation for callus induction and callus growth in select hemp cultivars. To find the optimal concentration/ratios, 16 different combinations of auxin:cytokinin and three different mineral salts formulations were evaluated. The three mineral salts formulations tested were MS salts, MB5D1K and an MTSU formulation. The top performing hormone formulations were determined to be equal concentrations (1:1, 2:2, 3:3 μM) of auxin and cytokinin. The top performing media hormone formulations for callus induction were determined to be 2:1, 2:2, 2:3, and 3:2 μM (auxin:cytokinin). The optimal mineral salts formulation was determined to be MD5D1K. Therefore, the overall optimal media formulation for hemp callus production would be MB5D1K salts with the concentration/ratio of 2:2 μM (auxin:cytokinin).