Contemporary nationwide trends in major adverse cardiovascular events in young cannabis users without concomitant tobacco,alcohol,cocaine use

BACKGROUND Cannabis use has increased among young individuals in recent years.Although dependent cannabis use disorder(CUD)has been associated with various cardiac events,its effects on young adults without concurrent substance use remain understudied.AIM To examine trends in hospitalizations for major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events(MACCE)in this cohort.METHODSWe used the National Inpatient Sample(2016-2019)to identify hospitalized young individuals(18-44 years),excluding those with concurrent substance usage(tobacco,alcohol,and cocaine).They were divided into CUD+and CUD-.Using International Classification of Diseases-10 codes,we examined the trends in MACCE hospitalizations,including all-cause mortality(ACM),acute myocardial infarction(AMI),cardiac arrest(CA),and acuteischemic stroke(AIS).RESULTSOf 27.4 million hospitalizations among young adults without concurrent substance abuse,4.2%(1.1 million)hadco-existent CUD.In CUD+group,hospitalization rates for MACCE(1.71%vs 1.35%),AMI(0.86%vs 0.54%),CA(0.27%vs 0.24%),and AIS(0.49%vs 0.35%)were higher than in CUD-group(P<0.001).However,rate of ACMhospitalizations was lower in CUD+group(0.30%vs 0.44%).From 2016 to 2019,CUD+group experienced arelative rise of 5%in MACCE and 20%in AMI hospitalizations,compared to 22%and 36%increases in CUDgroup(P<0.05).The CUD+group had a 13%relative decrease in ACM hospitalizations,compared to a 10%relative rise in CUD-group(P<0.05).However,when adjusted for confounders,MACCE odds among CUD+cohort remain comparable between 2016 and 2019.CONCLUSIONThe CUD+group had higher rates of MACCE,but the rising trends were more apparent in the CUD-group overtime.Interestingly,the CUD+group had lower ACM rates than the CUD-group.

Modified Atmospheric Packaging and Its Effect on Postharvest Cannabis Quality

Cannabis sativa L. is used as fiber, food, and medicine in several countries. Though it is illegal for recreational use in most of the world, there are some countries that have legalized production and sale. There is a lot of research on production of cannabis, but less so on storage technologies. Cannabis contains several high value compounds, such as cannabinoids and terpenoids, that are susceptible to degradation via light, temperature, and oxygen. Several studies have explored temperature and light, and industry has adjusted accordingly. However, less is known about oxygen-induced degradation. Biochemical studies have demonstrated oxidative degradation of high value compounds, and many producers use some form of modified atmospheric packaging (MAP) for storage. However, the efficacy of MAP is unclear. The objective of this paper is to review our current understanding of MAP in postharvest cannabis storage and identify avenues where additional research is needed.

Association of cannabis use disorder with atrial fibrillation in young men without concomitant tobacco use:Insights from nationwide propensity matched analysis

BACKGROUND Recent data are inconclusive regarding the risk of arrhythmias among young cannabis users.Furthermore,many young adults use both cannabis and tobacco,which could add a residual confounding effect on outcomes.So,we studied young men who have cannabis use disorder(CUD)excluding tobacco use disorder(TUD)to understand their independent association with atrial fibrillation(AF)and related outcomes.AIM To study the association of CUD with AF and related outcomes.METHODS We used weighted discharge records from National Inpatient Sample(2019)to assess the baseline characteristics and mortality rates for AF-related hospitalizations in young(18-44 years)men in 1:1 propensity-matched CUD+vs CUD-cohorts without TUD.RESULTS Propensity matched CUD+and CUD-cohorts consisted of 108495 young men in each arm.Our analysis showed an increased incidence of AF in black population with CUD.In addition,the CUD+cohort had lower rates of hyperlipidemia(6.4%vs 6.9%),hypertension(5.3%vs 6.3%),obesity(9.1%vs 10.9%),alcohol abuse(15.5%vs 16.9%),but had higher rates of anxiety(24.3%vs 18.4%)and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease(COPD)(9.8%vs 9.4%)compared to CUD-cohort.After adjustment with covariates including other substance abuse,a non-significant association was found between CUD+cohort and AF related hospitalizations(odd ratio:1.27,95%confidence interval:0.91-1.78,P=0.15).CONCLUSION Among hospitalized young men,the CUD+cohort had a higher prevalence of anxiety and COPD,and slightly higher proportion of black patients.Although there were higher odds of AF hospitalizations in CUD+cohort without TUD,the association was statistically non-significant.The subgroup analysis showed higher rates of AF in black patients.Large-scale prospective studies are required to evaluate long-term effects of CUD on AF risk and prognosis without TUD and concomitant substance abuse.

The Modulating Role of Cannabis in Insomnia: A Review of the Literature

The objective of this study was to carry out a review of the literature covering the topic of the association between sleep, insomnia and the medicinal use of cannabis. The guiding question for carrying out this study was whether the medicinal use of cannabis could have a significant positive impact on reducing insomnia. To this end, a review of the literature on the topic was prepared, both in English and Portuguese, from 2005 to 2023, in the PubMed, Scielo and LILACS databases. To search the databases, the keywords “cannabis”, “cannabidiol”, “tetrahydrocannabinol”, “insomnia” and “endocannabinoid” were used. In total, the initial search resulted in 17 articles. After a more careful analysis, only 6 of these articles met the inclusion criteria established for this study. Thus, it was concluded that, although some studies link the use of medicinal cannabis with an improvement in sleep quality, the current literature still lacks more studies on the topic.

Medicinal cannabis products for the treatment of acute pain

For thousands of years,medicinal cannabis has been used for pain treatment,but its use for pain management is still controversial.Meta-analysis of the literature has shown contrasting results on the addition of cannabinoids to opioids compared with placebo/other active agents to reduce pain.Clinical studies are mainly focused on medicinal cannabis use in chronic pain management,for which the analgesic effect has been proven in many studies.This review focuses on the potential use of medical cannabis for acute pain management in preclinical studies,studies on healthy subjects and the few pioneering studies in the clinical setting.

Should gastroenterologists prescribe cannabis? The highs, the lows and the unknowns

Cannabis,commonly known as marijuana,is a drug extracted from the Cannabis plant known for its psychotropic and medicinal properties.It has been used for healing purposes during ancient times,although its psychoactive components led to its restricted use in medicine.Nonetheless,cannabis is found to have modulatory effects on the endocannabinoid system exhibiting its medicinal role in the gastrointestinal(GI)system.Emerging animal and human studies demonstrate the influential effects of cannabis on a variety of GI diseases including inflammatory bowel disease,motility disorders and GI malignancies.It also has a regulatory role in GI symptoms including nausea and vomiting,anorexia,weight gain,abdominal pain,among others.However,both its acute and chronic use can lead to undesirable side effects such as dependency and addiction,cognitive impairment and cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.We will discuss the role of cannabis in the GI system as well as dosing strategies to help guide gastroenterologists to assess its efficacy and provide patient counseling before prescription of medical marijuana.

Preliminary Studies on the Tissue Culture of Cannabis sativa L.(Industrial hemp)

The internodes of the new cultivar Long-ma No.1 of Cannabis sativa L.（Industrial hemp） were used as explants for tissue culture. The paper studied the key factors of industrial hemp tissue culture, such as the physiological state of aseptic seedlings, the selection and concentration of plant growth regulators and so on.Hemp seed disinfection used 75% alcohol for 2 min and sterilized in 1‰ Hg Cl2 for 5min. The best combinations of plant growth regulators were 1.0 mg/L 6-BA and 0.5mg/L NAA for the induction of callus, and the best combinations of hormones were1.0 mg/L KT and 0.5 mg/L NAA for differentiation rate of adventitious bud.

GC Determination of Active Cannabinoids in Cannabis of Chinese Origin and Survey of Their Contents

A method of GC determination using tetracosane as the internal standard for active cannabinoids cannabidiol.△~9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabinol of cannabis is described.The method is simple and accurate and has been applied to investigate the contents of active cannabinoids in cannabis of Chinese origin.Information was obtained from provinces and autonomous region of China. Three pure cannabinoids used as the reference substances were extracted and isolated successfully from cannabis.

Study on the Anti-inflammatory and Repairing Effects of Cannabis Sativa Leaf Extract by Epikutis Model Substitution

To explore the anti-inflammatory effect of Cannabis sativa leaf extracts and their repair to damaged skin,a 3D epidermal model(Epikutis®)was used.During the experiment,after epithelial cell surface was pretreated with SLS for 24 h,the anti-inflammatory effect and repair effect of Cannabis sativa leaf extract were observed by testing tissue viability and the representative pro-inflammatory factors such as IL-1α,TNF-αand IL-8.The tissue viability was detected by the MTT test.The results showed that the Cannabis sativa leaf extract effectively inhibited the secretion of inflammatory factors IL-1α,TNF-αand IL-8,and the tissue viability of the skin model was significantly improved after using the sample.The Cannabis sativa leaf extract has a repairing effect on skin barrier damage by inhibiting skin inflammatory reaction.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome:Clinical diagnosis of an underrecognised manifestation of chronic cannabis abuse

Cannabis is a common drug of abuse that is associated with various long-term and short-term adverse effects. The nature of its association with vomiting after chronic abuse is obscure and is underrecognised by clinicians.In some patients this vomiting can take on a pattern similar to cyclic vomiting syndrome with a peculiar compulsive hot bathing pattern,which relieves intense feelings of nausea and accompanying symptoms.In this case report,we describe a twenty-two year-old-male with a history of chronic cannabis abuse presenting with recurrent vomiting,intense nausea and abdominal pain.In addition,the patient reported that the hot baths improved his symptoms during these episodes.Abstinence from cannabis led to resolution of the vomiting symptoms and abdominal pain.We conclude that in the setting of chronic cannabis abuse,patients presenting with chronic severe nausea and vomiting that can sometimes be accompanied by abdominal pain and compulsive hot bathing behaviour,in the absence of other obvious causes,a diagnosis of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome should be considered.

A Comparative Study on Hemp(Cannabis sativa)Essential Oil Extraction Using Traditional and Advanced Techniques

A comparative study of Cannabis sativa(Hemp)essential constituents obtained by using Supercritical Fluid Extraction(SCFE),Steam Distillation(SD)and Hydrodistillation(HD)is presented here.The optimized extraction temperatures were 130,110and 50℃for hydrodistillation,steam distillation and supercritical fluid extraction respectively.The essential oil of C.sativa was analyzed by using Gas chromatography mass spectrometry(GC-MS).A total of 33,30and 31components have been identified in HD,SD and SCFE respectively.Yield of essential oil using SCFE(0.039%)was more than HD(0.025%)and SD(0.035%)extraction respectively.The main component of sesquiterpenes obtained by hydrodistillation at 130℃with their percentages included caryophyllene(40.58%),trans-α-bergamotene(5.41%),humulene(10.97%),cis-β-farnesene(8.53%)and monoterpenes includedα-pinene(2.13%),d-limonene(6.46%),p-cymol(0.65%)and cineole(2.58%)respectively.The main component of sesquiterpenes obtained by SD steam distillation at110℃including caryophyllene(38.60%)trans-α-bergamotene(4.22%),humulene(10.26%),cis-β-farnesene(6.67%)and monoterpenes includedα-pinene(3.21%),d-limonene(7.07%),p-cymol(2.59%)and cineole(3.88%)whereas the more percentages of major components were obtained by SCFE at 50℃included caryophyllene(44.31%),trans-α-bergamotene(6.79%),humulene(11.97%)cis-β-farnesene(9.71%)and monoterpenes includedα-pinene(0.45%),d-limonene(2.13%)p-cymol(0.19%)and cineole(1.38%)respectively.We found yield/efficiency,chemical composition,quality of the essential oils by supercritical fluid extraction superior in terms of modern,green,saving energy and a rapid approach as compared to traditional techniques.

Determination of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol content of cannabis seizures in Egypt

Objective:To determine the delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol(THC)content of cannabis seizures in Egypt.Methods:Unheated and heated extracts of cannabis seizures were prepared from the dried flowering tops and leaves(marijuana)or from the resin(hashish)and subjected to analysis using high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC).Results:The heated resin extract had the peak of THC in a relative ratio of 31.34%,while extracting the resin directly without heating contained only 18.34%of THC.On the other hand,marijuana showed minimum percentage of THC at 11.188% on heating and 9.55% without heating.Conclusions:These results indicate the high potency of the abused cannabis plant in the illicit Egyptian market.

Overcoming the Bell‐Shaped Dose‐Response of Cannabidiol by Using Cannabis Extract Enriched in Cannabidiol

Cannabidiol (CBD), a major constituent of Cannabis, has been shown to be a powerful anti-inflammatory and anti-anxiety drug, without exerting a psychotropic effect. However, when given either intraperitoneally or orally as a purified product, a bell-shaped dose-response was observed, which limits its clinical use. In the present study, we have studied in mice the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of standardized plant extracts derived from the Cannabis sativa L., clone 202, which is highly enriched in CBD and hardly contains any psychoactive ingredients. In stark contrast to purified CBD, the clone 202 extract, when given either intraperitoneally or orally, provided a clear correlation between the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive responses and the dose, with increasing responses upon increasing doses, which makes this plant medicine ideal for clinical uses. The clone 202 extract reduced zymosan-induced paw swelling and pain in mice, and prevented TNFα production in vivo. It is likely that other components in the extract synergize with CBD to achieve the desired anti-inflammatory action that may contribute to overcoming the bell-shaped dose-response of purified CBD. We therefore propose that Cannabis clone 202 (Avidekel) extract is superior over CBD for the treatment of inflammatory conditions.

Antimicrobial Activity of <i>Cannabis sativa</i>L.

The oil of the seeds, petroleum ether and methanol extracts of the whole plant of Cannabis sativa belonging to the family Cannabinaceae were screened for their antimicrobial activity against two Gram positive organisms (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus), two Gram negative organisms (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and two fungi namely Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans using the cup plate agar diffusion method. The oil of the seeds of Cannabis sativa exerted pronounced antibacterial activity (21 - 28 mm) against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus, moderate activity (15 mm) against Escherichia coli and high activity (16 mm) against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and inactive against the two fungi tested. The petroleum ether extract of the whole plant exhibited pronounced antibacterial activity (23 - 28 mm) against both Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus organisms, high activity (16 mm) against Escherichia coli and inactive against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and both fungi. The methanol extract of the whole plant showed also pronounced antibacterial activity (29 mm) against Bacillus subtilis, low activity (12 mm) against Staphylococcus aureus and high activity (16 - 18 mm) against both Gram negative organisms, inactive against Aspergillus niger and low activity (13 mm) against Candida albicans. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of Cannabis sativa methanol extracts of the seeds and the whole plant against the standard organisms were determined using the agar plate dilution method. The standard organisms were tested against reference antibacterial and antifungal drugs and the results were compared with the activity of the extracts.

Cannabis use history is associated with increased prevalence of ascites among patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease:A nationwide analysis

BACKGROUND Recent studies have revealed the endocannabinoid system as a potential therapeutic target in the management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD).Cannabis use is associated with reduced risk for NAFLD,we hypothesized that cannabis use would be associated with less liver-related clinical complications in patients with NAFLD.AIM To assess the effects of cannabis use on liver-related clinical outcomes in hospitalized patients with NAFLD.METHODS We performed a retrospective matched cohort study based on querying the 2014 National Inpatient Sample(NIS)for hospitalizations of adults with a diagnosis of NAFLD.The NIS database is publicly available and the largest all-payer inpatient database in the United States.The patients with cannabis use were selected as cases and those without cannabis were selected as controls.Case-control matching at a ratio of one case to two controls was performed based on sex,age,race,and comorbidities.The liver-related outcomes such as portal hypertension,ascites,varices and variceal bleeding,and cirrhosis were compared between the groups.RESULTS A total of 49911 weighed hospitalizations with a diagnosis of NAFLD were identified.Of these,3820 cases were selected as the cannabis group,and 7625 noncannabis cases were matched as controls.Patients with cannabis use had a higher prevalence of ascites(4.5%vs 3.6%),with and without cannabis use,P=0.03.The prevalence of portal hypertension(2.1%vs 2.2%),varices and variceal bleeding(1.3%vs 1.7%),and cirrhosis(3.7%vs 3.6%)was not different between the groups,with and without cannabis use,all P>0.05.Hyperlipidemia,race/ethnicity other than White,Black,Asian,Pacific Islander or Native American,and higher comorbidity score were independent risk factors for ascites in the cannabis group.Among non-cannabis users,obesity and hyperlipidemia were independent protective factors against ascites while older age,Native American and higher comorbidity index were independent risk factors for ascites.CONCLUSION Cannabis was associated with higher rates of ascites,but there was no statistical difference in the prevalence of portal hypertension,varices and variceal bleeding,and cirrhosis.

Cannabinoids Production by Hairy Root Cultures of <i>Cannabis sativa</i>L.

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) derivatives are used clinically as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, appetite stimulant, anti-emetic and anti-tumor cannabinoids. THC and its related compounds are at present obtained by extraction from intact Cannabis plants or chemical synthesis, but plant cell cultures may be an alternative source of production. In the present study, hairy root cultures of C. sativa (Cannabaceae) were induced by incubation of aseptically grown callus culture with solid B5 medium supplemented with 4 mg/l naphthaleneacetic acid in darkness at 25°C. Hairy root growth profiles in shake flask, increased periodically during 35 days of growth cycle. The cannabinoid contents produced in minor levels and remained below 2.0 μg/g dry weight. The contents of can-nabinoid were analyzed by liquid chromatography and confirmed by mass spectrometry.

Photosynthetic Performance and Potency of <i>Cannabis sativa</i>L. Grown under LED and HPS Illumination

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be used as an energy efficient alternative to high-pressure sodium (HPS), which have historically been the standard for supplemental lighting in cannabis cultivation. However, there is a lack of scientific understanding in the cannabis industry regarding plant physiology, which has resulted in the adoption of cannabis cultivation methods based on hearsay rather than scientific research. The goals of this study were to 1) compare LED lighting options that are commonly used in the cannabis industry and 2) compare the top performing LED light with an industry standard HPS light. Specifically, three LED lights were compared (California Light Works ((SolarSystem 1100), BIOS Lighting (Icarus Gi2), and Fluence Bioengineering (now Fluence by Osram) (SPYDR xPLUS)), based on light distribution, leaf temperature, and photosynthetic performance indices. The LED versus HPS comparison was based on light response curves measured at photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD) of (0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 1250, 1500, 1750 and 2000 μmol∙m−2∙s−1), carbon assimilation rates (A) μmol CO2 m−2∙s−1 using a LiCor-6800 and resulting cannabinoid potency (THCA). The SPYDR xPLUS-Fluence by Osram had the highest performing LED light used in the LED comparison. At the suggested distance from bulb to canopy in the HPS versus LED comparison (6 inches for LEDs and 4 ft for HPS), carbon assimilation rates displayed a 142% percent increase in plants grown under LED vs. HPS with average photon flux densities of 795 and 298 μmol∙m−2∙s−1 for LED and HPS, respectively. All cultivars of Cannabis sativa L. showed increased cannabinoid potency when grown under LED illumination. The results of this study provide further insight regarding the selection of supplemental light to achieve maximum productivity of Cannabis sativa L.

Preventive effects of cannabis on neurotoxic and hepatotoxic activities of malathion in rat

Objective: To investigate the effect of Cannabis sativa extract on the development of neuroand hepato-toxicity caused by malathion injection in rats. Methods: The extract of Cannabis sativa was obtained from the plant resin by chloroform treatment. Δ~9-Tetrahydrocannabinol content of the extract(20%) was quantified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The doses of cannabis extract were expressed as Δ~9-tetrahydrocannabinol content of 10 or 20 mg/kg. Malathion(150 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally administered followed after 30 min by the cannabis extract(10 or 20 mg/kg, subcutaneously). Rats were euthanized 4 h later. Malondialdehyde(MDA), reduced glutathione(GSH), nitric oxide and paraoxonase-1(PON-1) activity were determined in brain and liver. Brain 5-lipoxygenase and butyrylcholinesterase(BChE) activity were measured as well. Histopathological examination of brain and liver tissue was also performed. Results: Compared to controls, malathion resulted in increased oxidative stress in brain and liver. MDA and nitric oxide concentrations were significantly increased(P<0.05) and GSH significantly decreased with respect to control levels(P<0.05). Malathion also significantly inhibited PON-1 and BChE activities but had no effect on brain 5-lipoxygenase. Brain MDA concentrations were not altered by cannabis treatment. Cannabis at 20 mg/kg, however, caused significant increase in nitric oxide and restored the GSH and PON-1 activity. Brain BChE activity significantly decreased by 26.1%(P<0.05) after treatment with 10 mg/kg cannabis. Cannabis showed no effect on brain 5-lipoxygenase. On the other hand, rats treated with cannabis exhibited significantly higher levels of liver MDA, nitric oxide and PON-1 activity compared with the malathion control group. Rats treated with only malathion exhibited spongiform changes, neuronal damage in the cerebral cortex and degeneration of some Purkinje cells in the cerebellum. There were also hepatic vacuolar degeneration and dilated and congested portal vein. These histopthological changes induced by malathion in brain and liver were reduced to great extent by cannabis administration at 20 mg/kg. Conclusions: Our data suggest that acute treatment with cannabis alleviates the malathion-induced brain and hepatic injury in rats possibly by maintaining the levels of GSH and PON-1 activity.

Acetylcholinesterase,butyrylcholinesterase and paraoxonase 1 activities in rats treated with cannabis,tramadol or both

Objective:To investigate the effect of Cannabis sativa resin and/or tramadol,two commonly drugs of abuse on acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase activities as a possible cholinergic biomarkers of neurotoxicity induced by these agents.Methods:rats were treated with cannabis resin(5,10 or 20 mg/kg)(equivalent to the active constituent A'-tetrahydrocannabinol),tramadol(5,10 and 20 mg/kg) or tramadol(10 mg/kg)combined with cannabis resin(5,10 and 20 mg/kg) subcutaneously daily for 6 weeks.Acetylcholinesterase(AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase(BChE) activities were measured in brain and serum.We also measured the activity of paraoxonase-1(PONl) in serum of rats treated with these agents.Results:(i) AChE activity in brain increased after 10-20 mg/kg cannabis resin(by 16.3%-36.5%).AChE activity in brain did not change after treatment with 5-20 mg/kg tramadol.The administration of both cannabis resin(5,10 or 20 mg/kg) and tramadol(10 mg/kg) resulted in decreased brain AChE activity by 14.1%,12.9%and 13.6%,respectively;(ii) BChE activity in serum was markedly and dose-dependenlly inhibited by cannabis resin(by 60.9%-76.9%).BChE activity also decreased by 17.6%-36.5%by 10-20mg/kg tramadol and by 57.2%-63.9%by the cannabis resin/tramadol combined treatment;(iii)Cannabis resin at dose of 20 mg/kg increased serum PONl activity by 25.7%.In contrast,tramadol given at 5,10 and 20 mg/kg resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in serum PON1 activity by 19%,36.7%,and 46.1%,respectively.Meanwhile,treatment with cannabis resin plus tramadol resulted in 40.2%,35.8%,30.7%inhibition of PONl activity compared to the saline group.Conclusions:these data suggest that cannabis resin exerts different effects on AChE and BChE activities which could contribute to the memory problems and the decline in cognitive function in chronic users.

Gastric acid inhibitory and gastric protective effects of cannabis and cannabinoids

Cannabis sativa has long been known for its psychotropic effect. Only recently with the discovery of the cannabinoid receptors, their endogenous legends and the enzymes responsible for their synthesis and degradation, the role of this ‘endocannabinoid system’ in different pathophysiologic processes is beginning to be delineated. There is evidence that CB1 receptor stimulation with synthetic cannabinoids or Cannabis sativa extracts rich in ?9-tetrahydrocannabinol inhibit gastric acid secretion in humans and in experimental animals. This is specially seen when gastric acid secretion is stimulated by pentagastrin, carbachol or 2 deoxy-D-glucose. Cannabis and/or cannabinoids protect the gastric mucosa against noxious challenge with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ethanol as well as against stress induced mucosal damage. Cannabis/cannabinoids might protect the gastric mucosa by virtue of its antisecretory, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilator properties.