Technological advancement and industrialization path of Sinopec in carbon capture,utilization and storage,China

Carbon capture,utilization and storage(CCUS)technology is an important means to effectively reduce carbon emissions from fossil energy combustion and industrial processes.With the crisis of climate change,CCUS has attracted increasing attention in the world.CCUS technology as developed rapidly in China is technically feasible for large-scale application in various industries.The R&D and demonstration of CCUS in China Petroleum&Chemical Corporation(Sinopec)are summarized,including carbon capture,carbon transport,CO_(2)enhanced energy recovery(including oil,gas,and water,etc.),and comprehensive utilization of CO_(2).Based on the source-sink matching characteristics in China,two CCUS industrialization scenarios are proposed,namely,CO_(2)-EOR,CO_(2)-driven enhanced oil recovery using centralized carbon sinks in East China and CO_(2)-EWR,CO_(2)-driven enhanced water recovery(EWR)using centralized carbon sources from the coal chemical industry in West China.Finally,a CCUS industrialization path from Sinopec's perspective is suggested,using CO_(2)-EOR as the major means and CO_(2)-EWR,CO_(2)-driven enhanced gas recovery(CO_(2)-EGR)and other utilization methods as important supplementary means.

Progress and prospect of carbon dioxide capture, utilization and storage in CNPC oilfields

The development history of carbon capture,utilization and storage for enhanced oil recovery(CCUS-EOR)in China is comprehensively reviewed,which consists of three stages:research and exploration,field test and industrial application.The breakthrough understanding of CO_(2) flooding mechanism and field practice in recent years and the corresponding supporting technical achievements of CCUS-EOR project are systematically described.The future development prospects are also pointed out.After nearly 60 years of exploration,the theory of CO_(2) flooding and storage suitable for continental sedimentary reservoirs in China has been innovatively developed.It is suggested that C7–C15 are also important components affecting miscibility of CO_(2) and crude oil.The mechanism of rapid recovery of formation energy by CO_(2) and significant improvement of block productivity and recovery factor has been verified in field tests.The CCUS-EOR reservoir engineering design technology for continental sedimentary reservoir is established.The technology of reservoir engineering parameter design and well spacing optimization has been developed,which focuses on maintaining miscibility to improve oil displacement efficiency and uniform displacement to improve sweep efficiency.The technology of CO_(2) capture,injection and production process,whole-system anticorrosion,storage monitoring and other whole-process supporting technologies have been initially formed.In order to realize the efficient utilization and permanent storage of CO_(2),it is necessary to take the oil reservoir in the oil-water transition zone into consideration,realize the large-scale CO_(2) flooding and storage in the area from single reservoir to the overall structural control system.The oil reservoir in the oil-water transition zone is developed by stable gravity flooding of injecting CO_(2) from structural highs.The research on the storage technology such as the conversion of residual oil and CO_(2) into methane needs to be carried out.

The Joule–Thomson effect of (CO_(2)+H_(2)) binary system relevant to gas switching reforming with carbon capture and storage(CCS)

The Joule-Thomson effect is one of the important thermodynamic properties in the system relevant to gas switching reforming with carbon capture and storage(CCS). In this work, a set of apparatus was set up to determine the Joule-Thomson effect of binary mixtures(CO_(2)+ H_(2)). The accuracy of the apparatus was verified by comparing with the experimental data of carbon dioxide. The Joule-Thomson coefficients(μ_(JT)) for(CO_(2)+ H_(2)) binary mixtures with mole fractions of carbon dioxide(x_(CO_(2))= 0.1, 0.26, 0.5,0.86, 0.94) along six isotherms at various pressures were measured. Five equations of state EOSs(PR,SRK, PR, BWR and GERG-2008 equation) were used to calculate the μ_(JT)for both pure systems and binary systems, among which the GERG-2008 predicted best with a wide range of pressure and temperature.Moreover, the Joule-Thomson inversion curves(JTIC) were calculated with five equations of state. A comparison was made between experimental data and predicted data for the inversion curve of CO_(2). The investigated EOSs show a similar prediction of the low-temperature branch of the JTIC for both pure and binary systems, except for the BWRS equation of state. Among all the equations, SRK has the most similar result to GERG-2008 for predicting JTIC.

Conversion Carbon Capture and Storage Factors in Temperate Human Controlled Wetland

This paper provides guidance for the quantification and reporting of blue carbon removals in the temperate coastal ecosystems,“Italian valli da pesca”or H.C.W.(Human Controlled Wetland,Lat.45°Lon.12°),where some pools as seagrasses,and salt marshes,are highly efficient at capturing and storing carbon dioxide(CO_(2))from the atmosphere.Halophyte salt marsh plants were found to have a%C on Dry Weight(D.W.)of 32.26±3.91(mean±standard deviation),macrophytes 33.65±7.99,seagrasses 29.23±2.23,tamarisk 48.42±2.80,while the first 5 centimetres of wetland mud,on average,had a%C of 8.56±0.94.Like the ISO(International Organization for Standardization)14064 guideline to quantify the GHG(Greenhouse Gas)emission,we have studied the different conversion factors to be used as a practical tool for measurement the CO_(2)sink activity.These factors are essential to calculate the overall carbon reduction in a project located in temperate wetland using a method as the ISO 14064.2,UNI-BNeutral,VCS VERRA or other that will come.

Secondary Silicates as a Barrier to Carbon Capture and Storage in Deccan Basalt

Investigating the immobilization of CO2,previous basalt-water-CO2 interaction studies revealed the formation of carbonates over a short period,but with the extensive formation of secondary silicates(SS).The mechanisms involved in these processes remain unresolved,so the present study was undertaken to understand secondary mineral formation mechanisms.XRPD and Rietveld refinement data for neo-formed minerals show a drastic decrease in the Ca-O bond length,with the calcite structure degenerating after 80 h(hours).However,SEM images and EDS data revealed that a longer interaction time resulted in the formation of chlorite and smectite,adjacent to basalt grains which prevent basaltwater-CO2 interaction to form carbonates,thus restricting carbonate formation.As a result of this,the CO2 mineralization rate is initially high(till 80 h),but it later reduces drastically.It is evident that,for such temperature-controlled transformations,low temperature is conducive to minimizing SS surface coating at the time of mineral carbonation.

Carbon capture and storage,geomechanics and induced seismic activity

Injection of large volumes of carbon dioxide(CO) for the purposes of greenhouse-gas emissions reduction has the potential to induce earthquakes.Operators of proposed projects must therefore take steps to reduce the risks posed by this induced seismicity.In this paper,we examine the causes of injection-induced seismicity(IIS),and how it should be monitored and modelled,and thereby mitigated.Many US case studies are found where fluids are injected into layers that are in close proximity to crystalline basement rocks.We investigate this issue further by comparing injection and seismicity in two areas where oilfield wastewater is injected in significant volumes:Oklahoma,where fluids are injected into a basal layer,and Saskatchewan,where fluids are injected into a much shallower layer.We suggest that the different induced seismicity responses in these two areas are at least in part due to these different injection depths.We go on to outline two different approaches for modelling IIS:a statistics based approach and a physical,numerical modelling based approach.Both modelling types have advantages and disadvantages,but share a need to be calibrated with good quality seismic monitoring data if they are to be used with any degree of reliability.We therefore encourage the use of seismic monitoring networks at all future carbon capture and storage(CCS) sites.

Carbon Capture Technologies in OAPEC Member Countries and the Circular Carbon Economy: A Roadmap to Zero Emissions by 2050

Several Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) member states (OMSs) have updated their nationally determined contributions (NDCs) with the aim of achieving zero carbon emissions by 2050. Carbon neutrality requires shifting from a linear carbon economy (LCE) to a circular carbon economy (CCE). Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies, including reduction, recycle, reuse, removal, and storage technologies, represent an important strategy for achieving such a shift. Herein, we investigate the effects of CCS technology adoption in six OMSs—namely the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Qatar, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait, Algeria, and Iraq—by examining their Circular Carbon Economy Index (CCEI) scores, which reflect compliance with CCE-transition policies. Total CCEI, current performance CCEI dimension, and future enabler CCEI dimensions scores were compared among the aforementioned six OMSs and relative to Norway, which was used as a global-high CCEI reference standard. Specifically, CCEI general scope and CCEI oil scope dimension scores were compared. The KSA, Qatar, the UAE, and Kuwait had higher CCEI scores than Algeria and Iraq, reflecting their greater adoption of CCE-transition policies and greater emission-reducing modernization investments. The current performance CCEI scores of Algeria and Iraq appear to be buttressed to some extent by their greater natural carbon sink resources. Based on the findings, we recommend specific actions for OMSs to enhance their CCE transitions and mitigate the negative impacts associated with the associated investments, including: taking rapid practical steps to eliminate carbon oil industry emissions;detailed CCS planning by national oil companies;international cooperation and coordination;and increased investment in domestic CCS utilization infrastructure.

Mapping Highly Cost-Effective Carbon Capture and Storage Opportunities in India

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG). India’s CO2 emissions are expected to increase 70% by 2025. Geologic carbon storage (GCS) offers a way to reduce CO2 emissions. Here we present the results of a search for the most cost-effective GCS opportunities in India. Source-Sink matching for large and concentrated CO2 sources near geological storage in India indicates one very high priority target, a fertilizer plant in the city of Narmadanagar in Bharuch District of Gujarat Province, India that is <20 km from old oil and gas fields in the Cambay Basin. Two pure CO2 sources are <20 km from deep saline aquifers and one

Technical Perspective of Carbon Capture,Utilization,and Storage

Carbon dioxide(CO_(2))is the primary greenhouse gas contributing to anthropogenic climate change which is associated with human activities.The majority of CO_(2) emissions are results of the burning of fossil fuels for energy,as well as industrial processes such as steel and cement production.Carbon capture,utilization,and storage(CCUS)is a sustainable technology promising in terms of reducing CO_(2) emissions that would otherwise contribute to climate change.From this perspective,the discussion on carbon capture focuses on chemical absorption technology,primarily due to its commercialization potential.The CO_(2) absorptive capacity and absorption rate of various chemical solvents have been summarized.The carbon utilization focuses on electrochemical conversion routes converting CO_(2) into potentially valuable chemicals which have received particular attention in recent years.The Faradaic conversion efficiencies for various CO_(2) reduction products are used to describe efficiency improvements.For carbon storage,successful deployment relies on a better understanding of fluid mechanics,geomechanics,and reactive transport,which are discussed in details.

Lifecycle carbon footprint and cost assessment for coal-to-liquid coupled with carbon capture,storage,and utilization technology in China

Thecoal-to-liquidcoupledwithcarbon capture,utilization,and storage technology has the potential to reduce CO_(2)emissions,but its carbon footprint and cost assessment are still insufficient.In this paper,coal mining to oil production is taken as a life cycle to evaluate the carbon footprint and levelized costs of direct-coal-toliquid and indirect-coal-to-liquid coupled with the carbon capture utilization and storage technology under three scenarios:non capture,process capture,process and public capture throughout the life cycle.The results show that,first,the coupling carbon capture utilization and storage technology can reduce CO_(2)footprint by 28%-57%from 5.91 t CO_(2)/t:oil of direct-coal-to-liquid and 24%-49%from 7.10 t CO_(2)/t:oil of indirect-coal-to-liquid.Next,the levelized cost of direct-coal-to-liquid is 648-1027$/t of oil,whereas that of indirect-coal-to-liquid is 653-1065$/t of oil.When coupled with the carbon capture utilization and storage technology,the levelized cost of direct-coalto-liquid is 285-1364$/t of oil,compared to 1101-9793/t of oil for indirect-coal-to-liquid.Finally,sensitivity analysis shows that CO_(2)transportation distance has the greatest impact on carbon footprint,while coal price and initial investment cost significantly affect the levelized cost ofcoal-to-liquid.

Progress and prospects of carbon dioxide capture,EOR-utilization and storage industrialization

Carbon dioxide capture,EOR-utilization and storage(CCUS-EOR)are the most practical and feasible large-scale carbon reduction technologies,and also the key technologies to greatly improve the recovery of low-permeability oil fields.This paper sorts out the main course of CCUS-EOR technological development abroad and its industrialization progress.The progress of CCUS-EOR technological research and field tests in China are summarized,the development status,problems and challenges of the entire industry chain of CO_(2) capture,transportation,oil displacement,and storage are analyzed.The results show a huge potential of the large-scale application of CCUS-EOR in China in terms of carbon emission reduction and oil production increase.At present,CCUS-EOR in China is in a critical stage of development,from field pilot tests to industrialization.Aiming at the feature of continental sedimentary oil and gas reservoirs in China,and giving full play to the advantages of the abundant reserves for CO_(2) flooding,huge underground storage space,surface infrastructure,and wide distribution of wellbore injection channels,by cooperating with carbon emission enterprises,critical technological research and demonstration project construction should be accelerated,including the capture of low-concentration CO_(2) at low-cost and on large-scale,supercritical CO_(2) long-distance transportation,greatly enhancing oil recovery and storage rate,and CO_(2) large-scale and safe storage.CCUS-EOR theoretical and technical standard system should be constructed for the whole industrial chain to support and promote the industrial scale application,leading the rapid and profitable development of CCUS-EOR emerging industrial chain with innovation.

China's policy framework for carbon capture,utilization and storage:Review,analysis,and outlook

Carbon capture,utilization,and storage(CCUS)is estimated to contribute substantial CO_(2)emission reduction to carbon neutrality in China.There is yet a large gap between such enormous demand and the current capacity,and thus a sound enabling environment with sufficient policy support is imperative for CCUS development.This study reviewed 59 CCUS-related policy documents issued by the Chinese government as of July 2022,and found that a supporting policy framework for CCUS is taking embryonic form in China.More than ten departments of the central government have involved CCUS in their policies,of which the State Council,the National Development and Reform Commission(NDRC),the Ministry of Science and Technology(MOST),and the Ministry of Ecological Environment(MEE)have given the greatest attention with different focuses.Specific policy terms are further analyzed following the method of content analysis and categorized into supply-,environment-and demand-type policies.The results indicate that supply-type policies are unbalanced in policy objectives,as policy terms on technology research and demonstration greatly outnumber those on other objectives,and the attention to weak links and industrial sectors is far from sufficient.Environment-type policies,especially legislations,standards,and incentives,are inadequate in pertinence and operability.Demand-type policies are absent in the current policy system but is essential to drive the demand for the CCUS technology in domestic and foreign markets.To meet the reduction demand of China's carbon neutral goal,policies need to be tailored according to needs of each specific technology and implemented in an orderly manner with well-balanced use on multiple objectives.

The European Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Laboratory Infrastructure(ECCSEL)

The transition to a non-emitting energy mix for power generation will take decades. This transition will need to be sustainable, e.g.economically affordable. Fossil fuels which are abundant have an important role to play in this respect, provided that Carbon Capture and Storage(CCS) is progressively implemented. CCS is the only way to reduce emissions from energy intensive industries.Thus, the need for upgraded and new CCS research facilities is widely recognised among stakeholders across Europe, as emphasised by the Zero Emissions Platform(ZEP) [1] and the European Energy Research Alliance on CCS(EERA-CCS) [2].The European Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage Laboratory Infrastructure, ECCSEL, provides funders, operators and researchers with significant benefits by offering access to world-class research facilities that, in many cases, are unlikely for a single nation to support in isolation.This implies creation of synergy and the avoidance of duplication as well as streamlining of funding for research facilities.ECCSEL offers open access to its advanced laboratories for talented scientists and visiting researchers to conduct cutting-edge research.In the planning of ECCSEL, gap analyses were performed and CCS technologies have been reviewed to underpin and envisage the future experimental setup; 1) Making use of readily available facilities, 2) Modifying existing facilities, and 3) Planning and building entirely new advanced facilities.The investments required for the first ten years(2015-2025) are expected to be in the range of €80-120 miilion. These investments show the current level of ambition, as proposed during the preparatory phase(2011-2014).Entering the implementation phase in 2015, 9 European countries signed Letter of Intent(LoI) to join a ECCSEL legal entity: France, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Poland, Greece, Norway and Switzerland(active observer). As the EU ERIC-regulation [3] would offer the most suitable legal framework for ECCSEL, the host country, Norway, will apply for establishing ERIC as the ECCSEL Research Infrastructure(RI)legal entity in 2017. Until the ECCSEL ERIC is approved by the European Commission(probably by summer 2017), an interim MoU agreement for the implementation phase of ECCSEL RI has been signed by 13 research institutions and universities representing the 9 countries. A consortium of these partners were granted 3 million EURO from Horizon 2020 to boost implementation of ECCSEL from September 2015 and two years onwards.?2016, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

An Integrated Framework for Geothermal Energy Storage with CO_(2)Sequestration and Utilization

Subsurface geothermal energy storage has greater potential than other energy storage strategies in terms of capacity scale and time duration.Carbon dioxide(CO_(2))is regarded as a potential medium for energy storage due to its superior thermal properties.Moreover,the use of CO_(2)plumes for geothermal energy storage mitigates the greenhouse effect by storing CO_(2)in geological bodies.In this work,an integrated framework is proposed for synergistic geothermal energy storage and CO_(2)sequestration and utilization.Within this framework,CO_(2)is first injected into geothermal layers for energy accumulation.The resultant high-energy CO_(2)is then introduced into a target oil reservoir for CO_(2)utilization and geothermal energy storage.As a result,CO_(2)is sequestrated in the geological oil reservoir body.The results show that,as high-energy CO_(2)is injected,the average temperature of the whole target reservoir is greatly increased.With the assistance of geothermal energy,the geological utilization efficiency of CO_(2)is higher,resulting in a 10.1%increase in oil displacement efficiency.According to a storage-potential assessment of the simulated CO_(2)site,110 years after the CO_(2)injection,the utilization efficiency of the geological body will be as high as 91.2%,and the final injection quantity of the CO_(2)in the site will be as high as 9.529×10^(8)t.After 1000 years sequestration,the supercritical phase dominates in CO_(2)sequestration,followed by the liquid phase and then the mineralized phase.In addition,CO_(2)sequestration accounting for dissolution trapping increases significantly due to the presence of residual oil.More importantly,CO_(2)exhibits excellent performance in storing geothermal energy on a large scale;for example,the total energy stored in the studied geological body can provide the yearly energy supply for over 3.5×10^(7) normal households.Application of this integrated approach holds great significance for large-scale geothermal energy storage and the achievement of carbon neutrality.

Preface to Special Issue: CO_2 capture storage and utilization

Reducing the anthropogenic COemissions from fossil resource combustion and human activities has become one of the major challenges we are facing today.Beyond those practical applications for the utilization of CO,such as the synthesis of salicylic acid,methanol,urea,NaHCO-NaCOchemicals and recently developed polycarbonate synthesis,scientists are still seeking new materials and technologies for efficient capture,

Bipolar membrane electrodialysis integrated with in-situ CO_(2)absorption for simulated seawater concentrate utilization,carbon storage and production of sodium carbonate

In the context of carbon capture,utilization,and storage,the high-value utilization of carbon storage presents a significant challenge.To address this challenge,this study employed the bipolar membrane electrodialysis integrated with carbon utilization technology to prepare Na_(2)CO_(3)products using simulated seawater concentrate,achieving simultaneous saline wastewater utilization,carbon storage and high-value production of Na_(2)CO_(3).The effects of various factors,including concentration of simulated seawater concentrate,current density,CO_(2)aeration rate,and circulating flow rate of alkali chamber,on the quality of Na_(2)CO_(3)product,carbon sequestration rate,and energy consumption were investigated.Under the optimal condition,the CO_(3)^(2-)concentration in the alkaline chamber reached a maximum of 0.817 mol/L with 98 mol%purity.The resulting carbon fixation rate was 70.50%,with energy consumption for carbon sequestration and product production of 5.7 k Whr/m^(3)CO_(2)and1237.8 k Whr/ton Na_(2)CO_(3),respectively.This coupling design provides a triple-win outcome promoting waste reduction and efficient utilization of resources.

Carbon Dioxide Capture and Utilization for Gas Engine

Sodium glycinate absorption and ethylene carbonate synthesis from a mixture gas of ethylene oxide and carbon dioxide are evaluated as carbon dioxide capture and utilization system for gas engine flue gas. The energy requirement for CO2 capture is estimated at 3.3 GJ/tonne CO2. The ethylene carbonate synthesis utilizes more than 90% of the captured CO2 and supply 2.5 GJ/tonne CO2 of thermal energy, which is 76% of the energy requirement for CO2 capture. The thermal integration of the sodium glycinate absorption and the ethylene carbonate synthesis reduces the energy requirement for CO2 capture from 3.3 GJ/tonne CO2 to 0.8 GJ/tonne CO2. The energy requirement for the CO2 capture is supplied using the steam saturated at 0.78 MPa from the gas engine without its electric power reduction.

Recent advances,challenges,and perspectives on carbon capture

Carbon capture,utilization and storage(CCUS)technologies play an essential role in achieving Net Zero Emissions targets.Considering the lack of timely reviews on the recent advancements in promising CCUS technologies,it is crucial to provide a prompt review of the CCUS advances to understand the current research gaps pertained to its industrial application.To that end,this review first summarized the developmental history of CCUS technologies and the current large-scale demonstrations.Then,based on a visually bibliometric analysis,the carbon capture remains a hotspot in the CCUS development.Noting that the materials applied in the carbon capture process determines its performance.As a result,the state-of-the-art carbon capture materials and emerging capture technologies were comprehensively summarized and discussed.Gaps between state-of-art carbon capture process and its ideal counterpart are analyzed,and insights into the research needs such as material design,process optimization,environmental impact,and technical and economic assessments are provided.

Investigation of the role of Ca(OH)2 in the catalytic Alkaline Thermal Treatment of cellulose to produce H2 with integrated carbon capture

The Alkaline Thermal Treatment(ATT)of biomass is one of the few biomass conversion processes that has a potential for BECCS(bio-energy with carbon capture and storage).Combining in-situ carbon capture withcreates a carbon-neutral process that has the potential to be carbon-negative.This study has shown that the conversion of cellulose tosuppressedcan be achieved through the reforming of gaseous intermediates in a fixed bed of 10%Ni/ZrO2.Reforming occurs at low temperatures≤773 K,which could allow for improved sustainability.

Criteria for Selecting Carbon Subsurface and Ocean Storage Site in Developing Countries: A Review

Important first phases in the process of implementing CO2 subsurface and ocean storage projects include selecting of best possible location(s) for CO2 storage, and site selection evaluation. Sites must fulfill a number of criteria that boil down to the following basics: they must be able to accept the desired volume of CO2 at the rate at which it is supplied from the CO2 source(s);they must as well be safe and reliable;and must comply with regulatory and other societal requirements. They also must have at least public acceptance and be based on sound financial analysis. Site geology;hydrogeological, pressure, and geothermal regimes;land features;location, climate, access, etc. can all be refined from these basic criteria. In addition to aiding in site selection, site characterization is essential for other purposes, such as foreseeing the fate and impacts of the injected CO2, and informing subsequent phases of site development, including design, permitting, operation, monitoring, and eventual abandonment. According to data from the IEA, in 2022, emissions from Africa and Asias emerging markets and developing economies, excluding Chinas, increased by 4.2%, which is equivalent to 206 million tonnes of CO2 and were higher than those from developed economies. Coal-fired power generation was responsible for more than half of the rise in emissions that were recorded in the region. The difficulty of achieving sustainable socio-economic progress in the developing countries is entwined with the work of reducing CO2 emissions, which is a demanding project for the economy. Organisations from developing countries, such as Bangladesh, Cameroon, India, and Nigeria, have formed partnerships with organisations in other countries for lessons learned and investment within the climate change arena. The basaltic rocks, coal seams, depleted oil and gas reservoirs, soils, deep saline aquifers, and sedimentary basins that developing countries (Bangladesh, Cameroon, India, and Nigeria etc.) possess all contribute to the individual countrys significant geological sequestration potential. There are limited or no carbon capture and storage or clean development mechanism projects running in these countries at this time. The site selection and characterization procedure are not complete without an estimate of the storage capacity of a storage location. Estimating storage capacity relies on volumetric estimates because a site must accept the planned volume of CO2 during the active injection period. As more and more applications make use of site characterization, so too does the body of written material on the topic. As the science of CO2 storage develops, regulatory requirements are implemented, field experience grows, and the economics of CO2 capture and storage improve, so too will site selection and characterisation change.