Dissemination of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Latin America and the Caribbean: the Cases of Peru, Chile, and Cuba

Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) arrived from China to Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1840s due to the massive migration of Chinese people to the region. In a few years, the press noticed the presence of Chinese herbalists practicing in different cities and countries regardless of the demographic weight of the Chinese community. The fascination with Chinese doctors implicated not only the press but also the literature, a phenomenon particularly observed in Cuba. In the first decades of the 20th century, the reactivation of Chinese immigration to the region fostered an anti-Chinese climate that materialized in more significant migratory restrictions and control of their businesses, such as what happened with Chinese herbalists. These herbalists who practiced inside and outside the Chinese community started to object to criticism and persecution by the conservative press and professional doctors. Despite this, Chinese doctors will continue to maintain their support of a significant number of ill persons. This work seeks to illuminate the historical relevance of TCM in Latin America and the Caribbean, focusing on the cases of Peru, Chile, and Cuba. This last country was far from China culturally and geographically, but as in many other small towns in the region, Chinese medicine presented an alternative to the treatment of illnesses.

A Preliminary Analysis of Trace-Elemental Signatures in Statoliths of Different Spawning Cohorts for Dosidicus gigas off EEZ Waters of Chile

We applied solution-based ICP-MS method to quantify the trace-elemental signatures in statoliths of jumbo flying squid, Dosidius gigas, which were collected from the waters off northern and central Chile during the scientific surveys carried out by Chinese squid jigging vessels in 2007 and 2008. The age and spawning date of the squid were back-calculated based on daily increments in statoliths. Eight elemental ratios(Sr/Ca, Ba/Ca, Mg/Ca, Mn/Ca, Na/Ca, Fe/Ca, Cu/Ca and Zn/Ca) were analyzed. It was found that Sr is the second most abundant element next to Ca, followed by Na, Fe, Mg, Zn, Cu, Ba and Mn. There was no significant relationship between element/Ca and sea surface temperature(SST) and sea surface salinity(SSS), although weak negative or positive tendency was found. MANOVA analysis showed that multivariate elemental signatures did not differ among the cohorts spawned in spring, autumn and winter, and no significant difference was found between the northern and central sampling locations. Classification results showed that all individuals of each spawned cohorts were correctly classified. This study demonstrates that the elemental signatures in D. gigas statoliths are potentially a useful tool to improve our understanding of its population structure and habitat environment.

Characteristics of seismic activity before Chile M_W8.8 earthquake in 2010

The tempo-spatial variation of seismic activity before great Chile MW8.8 earthquake on February 27,2010 is studied.Some results are as follows:1 Two types of seismic gaps appeared before the Chile MW8.8 shock.One is background gap of MW≥8.0 earthquakes with 360 km length since 1900,the other is seismogenic gap formed by M≥5.5 earthquakes with 780 km length five years before the Chile earthquake;2 There was only one MW7.1 earthquake in the middle and southern part of Chile from 1986 to 2010.The obvious quiescence of MW≥7.0 earthquake is the long-term background anomaly for the Chile earthquake;3 The quiescence of M≥6.5 earthquakes appeared in South American block and its vicinity during the period from 2007 to 2009,and the quietude state has been disappeared three months before the Chile MW8.8 earthquake;4 The deep and intermediate-depth earthquake activity has been noticeablely strengthened in the subduction zone of South American block since 1993;5 The great Chile earthquake shows that global seismicity is still in the active period of MW≥8.5 earthquakes since 2004.Based on the characteristics of the former two active periods,several great earthquakes with MW≥8.5 would take place in a few years.In addition,the circum-Pacific seismic belt would be the main region for MW≥8.0 earthquakes.

Inflammatory bowel disease: A descriptive study of 716 local Chilean patients

AIM: To demographically and clinically characterize inflammatory bowel disease(IBD) from the local registry and update data previously published by our group.METHODS: A descriptive study of a cohort based on a registry of patients aged 15 years or older who were diagnosed with IBD and attended the IBD program at Clínica Las Condes in Santiago, Chile. The registry was created in April 2012 and includes patients registered up to October 2015. The information was anonymously downloaded in a monthly report, and the information on patients with more than one visit was updated. The registry includes demographic, clinical and disease characteristics, including the Montreal Classification, medical treatment, surgeries and hospitalizations for crisis. Data regarding infection with Clostridium difficile(C. difficile) were incorporated in the registry in 2014. Data for patients who received consultations as second opinions and continued treatment at this institution were also analyzed. RESULTS: The study included 716 patients with IBD: 508 patients(71%) were diagnosed with ulcerative colitis(UC), 196 patients(27%) were diagnosed with Crohn's disease(CD) and 12 patients(2%) were diagnosed with unclassifiable IBD. The UC/CD ratio was 2.6/1. The median age was 36 years(range 16-88), and 58% of the patients were female, with a median age at diagnosis of 29 years(range 5-76). In the past 15 years, a sustained increase in the number of patients diagnosed with IBD was observed, where 87% of the patients were diagnosed between the years 2001 and 2015. In the cohort examined in the present study, extensive colitis(50%) and colonic involvement(44%) predominated in the patients with UC and CD, respectively. In CD patients, nonstricturing/non-penetrating behavior was more frequent(80%), and perianal disease was observed in 28% of the patients. There were significant differences in treatment between UC and CD, with a higher use of corticosteroids, and immunosuppressive and biological therapies was observed in the patients with CD(P < 0.05 and P < 0.01). Significant surgical differences were also observed: 5% of the UC patients underwent surgery, whereas 38% of the CD patients required at least one surgery(P < 0.01). The patients with CD were hospitalized more often during their disease course than the patients with UC(55% and 35% of the patients, respectively; P < 0.01). C. difficile infection was acquired by 5% of the patients in each group at some point during the disease course. Nearly half of the patients consulted at the institution for a second opinion, and 32% of these individuals continued treatment at the institution. CONCLUSION: IBD has continued to increase in the study cohort, slowly approaching the level reported in developed countries.

Social Construction of Dependence in Elderly Men in Chile

Based on a qualitative research restricted to aging processes in Chile, the paper presents the experience and significance of dependence in elderly men and how it is related with the social construction of old age. It is important to know how the identity of aging is configured when facing such a significant biographical and social landmark as the loss of functionality in later life. When analyzing the social construction of dependence in elderly men, three aspects of that configuration stand out: first, the way in which they understand and signify their situations of illness, physical problems, disability, and evaluation of their health;second, the characteristics of the social significant contexts in which disability or physical problems become evident;and third, the actions, roles or activities that they perform in those contexts, which are valued differently according to the experiences of dependence or autonomy. Dependence in elderly men does not appear as a static condition, but rather as a passage from physical-biological conditioners to the social context in which their everyday actions take place. So the agency of the dependence, its construction, experience and significance is the understanding of the social phenomenon of old age.

Comparison of two great Chile tsunamis in 1960 and 2010 using numerical simulation

Great differences in hazard and losses were shown from two tsunamis,both generated in Chile,one in 1960 and the other in 2010.Numerical simulation was applied to the tsunami analysis.The fault dislocation of the seafloor was assumed to equal to the initial tsunami wave field,which can be calculated by the formula of fault dislocation in the elastic isotropic half-space.The linear long wave theory was used as the tsunami hydrodynamic model,and the finite difference method and leap-frog scheme were selected for solving the equations.The accuracy of the simulated results was verified by the observed data in five tide gauges.By means of two scenario tsunamis, the analytical results show that the earthquake magnitude,bathymetry in rupture zone and rapid release of warning information in 2010 tsunami are the main explanations of the aforementioned great difference.

Effects of vegetation strata and human disturbance on bird diversity in green areas in a city in southern Chile

Background: Urbanisation is a dominant geographical trend and an important component of global change, with unprecedented implications for socio?economic, cultural and environmental characteristics. However, green areas, including original fragments, can help to conserve native diversity, improving the functioning of these artificial systems in the long term. Urban areas can still provide habitats usable by wild birds, however the structural charac?teristics of the habitat formed by different types of green area differ, and therefore dissimilar bird diversities are to be expected. The object of this study was to characterise the α and β diversities of birds in different green areas and to analyse how diversity relates to ten variables that characterise the habitat.Methods: We studied the green areas in the city of Temuco, southern Chile(Park, Square and Median strips of main streets), evaluating the variables:(a) surface area,(b) vegetation,(c) estimated human impact as the proportions of vegetation and bare soil by area, and the vehicle traffic. The bird assemblage structures were characterised by α(intra?environment) diversity and β diversity(between environments) and the statistical analysis identified the environmen?tal variables related with the presence and abundance of birds. A statistical model was constructed to describe the contribution of the variables to bird diversity.Results: We found significant differences between the diversity of bird species in the three types of green area. The β showed medium to high similarity between the different study units. There was a negative correlation with bare soil areas; the correlations with vehicle flow, plant structure and tree and shrub cover were not significant, meaning that these variables did not explain the variation in the richness of bird species between the green areas. However the surface area did explain this variation presenting a positive potential relation. There was also a high correlation with the origin(native) of shrub species.Conclusions: The bird diversity varied significantly according to the type of urban green area. The environmental variables presenting significant correlations with bird diversity were: surface area, native species of shrub stratum, shrub cover, and bare soil area. The best multiple regression model showed that the three most important variables for bird diversity are the surface area of the green area, the cover of the shrub stratum and the presence of native shrub species.

Health and widowhood: Meanings and experience of elderly women in Chile

Aging and widowhood signal a real and symbolic landmark of change toward new vital experiences of elderly people. In the aging experience of women, there are three social age markers that participate directly in the construction of their identity as women during old age: menopause, work and widowhood. The present paper reports the results of a research on widowhood in old age and the experience of aging in elderly women in Chile. Through a qualitative methodological strategy, in depth biographic interviews were held with elderly people who were widowed after reaching 60 years of age, centering the analysis on its meanings on the body, health and death in old age, highlighting sociocultural aspects of the aging and widowing processes. Approaching widowhood in old age shows us not only a person who has lost a husband, but also what it means to be an elderly woman in a life experience continuum that also brings about key changes to understand the aging process of people, because marital relations can get to be determining factors for the construction of the identity of women and their experience of the aging process.

A Multiscale Assessment of the Risks Imposed by Plantation Forestry on Plant Biodiversity in the Hotspot Central Chile

We assessed the effects of plantations of exotic trees (Pinus radiata, Eucalyptus globulus, and Populus nigra) on plant biodiversity in the temperate zone of the biodiversity hotspot of Central Chile. This region has suffered from intense deforestation in favor of plantation establishment in the major part of the coastal area since the neoliberal turn in 1973. The approach presented aimed to analyze plant biodiversity on the α-, β- and γ-scale. Furthermore, a plantation evaluation index was applied in order to provide quantitative figures on management practices. Species richness is reduced by 50% below plantations. Diversity and evenness index values are also significantly reduced. Analyses on β-similarity indicate that plantations do not host species absent in adjacent native forests, and no additional habitat heterogeneity is gained. On the γ-scale, plantations lower the number of total species observed;especially of endemic species. The abundance of species considered as invasive is significantly higher and frequently, invasive plants dominate the understory. The evaluation index attests rather poor plantation management in Central Chile since plantations are grown as monocultures, natural elements and native species are lacking at specific sites and plantations are insufficiently connected to native plant formations at the landscape scale. Results give much concern since deforestation processes as observed in our study area is about to begin in Patagonia as well. If management practices from the temperate zone are adopted in Patagonia, a considerable decline in plant biodiversity has to be expected there.

Health production and risk of obesity among Chilean adolescents: Understanding health related behaviors in youth

Background: Adolescent obesity is associated with high cardiovascular and metabolic risk. Western diet and reduced physical activity are strong environmental determinants. The “Health Production” model posits that individuals born with a certain amount of health stock, which depreciates over life, but can be augmented by individual behaviors, including exercise and dieting. Objective: To study the association between health production and obesity in a random sample of 1692 Chilean adolescents (14.8 ± 0.7 years old), and to study the effect of gender and socioeconomic characteristics on health production. Method: We used an indicator that considered the quality of food intake and physical activity, establishing three categories: good (GHP), intermediate (IHP) and poor health producers (PHP). Multivariate analysis was used to study the odds of obesity and good health production. Results: There was 31% of GHP, 32% of IHP and 38% of PHP. Obesity (Adj. OR: 1.59;95%CI: 1.04 - 2.42) and abdominal obesity (Adj. OR: 2.24;95%CI: 1.35 - 3.40) were significantly higher in the PHP group, compared to the GHP and IHP group. Health production was significantly associated with socioeconomic factors and gender. Female sex and coming from a less wealthy household significantly reduced the odds of good health production. Conclusions: Poor health production in adolescence, as defined by food intake and physical activity, depreciates individuals’ “health stock”, increasing the risk of obesity. In our sample, health production was strongly associated with socio-economic factors and gender.

Field report:Sailing around the exhumed roots of the Mesozoic Patagonian paleo-accretionary wedge(Diego de Almagro Island,Chile)

We undertook a boat expedition to explore the geological framework of a very remote, lesser-known island, in the Chilean Patagonia: the Diego de Almagro Island(latitude S51°330'). This uninhabited, ca.400 km^2 Island is one of the very rare exposures of the Mesozoic accretionary subduction complex along the Chilean margin. Unstable weather, strong winds, steep topography, and very dense vegetation make an on-land mission difficult. Careful preparation based on high-resolution satellite images is advised to optimize shore access and minimize risks of injury. Despite a relatively important degree of regional reequilibration of metamorphic assemblages due to sluggish exhumation through the forearc crust, our results have shown that the island is composed of a nappe stack of ocean-floor derived slivers of metasedimentary units that exhibit very different pressure-temperature-time paths during burial by subduction under the Chilean margin and subsequent exhumation. These rocks are witness to a complex thermal evolution of the subduction zone between Jurassic and Cretaceous times from granulite facies to blueschist facies conditions as well as multiple episodes of accretion at ca. 35 -40 km in depth for almost100 Ma over the Mesozoic era.

Palynostratigraphy of the Zorritas Formation, Antofagasta region, Chile： Insights on the Devonian]Carboniferous boundary in western Gondwana

The Middle Member of the Zorritas Formation in the Antofagasta region of northern Chile,yielded terrestrial and marine palynomorph assemblages which span the Devonian/Carboniferous boundary.The assemblages show a clear predominance of terrestrial palynomorphs with 70 miospore species,18 marine phytoplankton species,two non-marine algae and one chitinozoan species,all coming from 15 productive levels.Palynomorphs are poorly preserved and most of them are reworked.Three palynological associations are recognized based on miospores.These are assigned to the Tournaisian-Visean,Tournaisian and probable latest Famennian.Age assignments are discussed in the frame of the spore zonal schemes established for Euramerica and western Gondwana.The stratigraphical distribution of spores allows the identification of the probable position of the Devonian/Carboniferous boundary within the Zorritas Formation.This system boundary is proposed for the first time in Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks of northern Chile.The presence of Gondwanan typical miospore species indicates affinities with this palaeocontinent even though the Tournaisian and Tournaisian-Visean miospore associations support the cosmopolitanism already suggested for the early Carboniferous flora.The significant number of reworked palynomorphs together with the sedimentological analysis of the studied sections,suggest that these deposits were severely impacted by the climatic change and major sea level fluctuations.Similar conditions were recorded in coeval western Gondwana basins.

Identifying Summer/Autumn Habitat Hotspots of Jumbo Flying Squid (Dosidicus gigas) off Chile

Abundance and distribution of jumbo flying squid(Dosidicus gigas)are evidently influenced by the changes of marine environment.In this study,the maximum entropy(MaxEnt)model was applied to examine the impacts of marine environmental variables on its potential distribution,and identified habitat hotspots of D.gigas in summer and autumn along the coast of Chile.The MaxEnt model was constructed by using the fisheries data of D.gigas from summer to autumn during 2011–2017 combined with critical environmental factors including mixed layer depth(MLD),sea surface salinity(SSS),sea surface height(SSH)and water temperature at depths of 0 m,25 m,50 m,100 m,150 m,200 m,300 m,400 m and 500 m.Results showed that the actual fishing efforts of D.gigas in summer and autumn were mostly distributed in the suitable habitat,indicating that the MaxEnt model can well predict the habitat hotspots of D.gigas off Chile.The key environmental factors and their suitable ranges for D.gigas showed significant intermonthly changes from December to May.The critical environmental factors of D.gigas off Chile were MLD,SSH,water temperature at different depths in summer(Temp_25 m in December,Temp_300 m in January and Temp_400 m in February)and SSH,SSS,Temp_400 m in autumn.Our findings suggest that selecting the key environmental factors is vital to study the potential distribution of D.gigas off Chile in each month to explore its habitat hotspots.

Taxonomic Diversity and Taxonomic Dominance: The Example of Forest Plantations in South-Central Chile

The study describes an analysis of the impact of plantation forestry on the taxonomic diversity of plants in south-central Chile. In this biodiversity hotspot, plantations of non-native species like Pinus radiata D. Don, Eucalyptus globules Labill. and Populus nigra L. have largely replaced native deciduous and sclerophyllous forests. The study compares taxonomic diversity of commercial plantations and native forests using taxonomic distinctness and diversity and the Simpson diversity index. Most of these indexes attest a considerably reduced taxonomic diversity to plantations. However, taxonomic distinctness values for P. radiata plantations seem to contradict other indexes at first glance. It is shown that the higher values of taxonomic distinctness of P. radiata plantations come from taxonomic dominance. Taxonomic dominance describes the fact that P. radiate—a member of the infradivison of Gymnospermae-bears only little taxonomic resemblance to other plants, which are Angiospermae. Thus, it strongly dominates the taxonomic distinctness index and the high taxonomic resemblance of other plant within its plots is neglected. Indexes are developed that identify such dominant species and adjust for taxonomic dominance in taxonomic diversity analyses. After this adjustment, all indexes provide a coherent image on taxonomic diversity. Plantation forestry produces a considerable decline of taxonomic diversity. Taxonomic diversity analysis provides valuable insights in biodiversity impacts and complements standard analyses.

Establishing a Hydrographic Framework for Watershed Management across Northern Chile

This article demonstrates how currently available digital elevation (NASA SRTM;30 m resolution) and hourly global precipitation data (rain, snow;5 and 10 km resolution) can be used to hydrographically quantify the regional watershed management context across northern Chile. This is done through comprehensive derivations of flow direction, flow accumulation, flow channels, floodplain extent, depressions, and upslope watershed outlines. In turn, these derivations allow for estimating potential precipitation accumulations within any watershed, and turn these into subsequent storm-averaged discharge estimates at, e.g., at any road—flow-channel crossing points. This article elaborates on this by modelling and mapping hydrological conditions and subsequent storm damage at the regional scale and at select locations in terms of recent flood events on March 2015, May 2017, and June 2017. It was found that modelled flood extent and storm-estimated discharge volumes and rates generally conform to reported values including storm-caused damages within communities along the Huasco, Elqui, Limari, Copiapó and Salado rivers. This included the storm response assessment of six water reservoirs as these varied, as quantified, from normal (Puclaro, La Laguna, Cogoti), at capacity (La Paloma, Cogoli), and overflowing (Recoleta). The details of the local to regional assessments are presented in the form hydrologically explicit maps, figures and tables. Together, these attest to the general validity of the framework as introduced. Hydrometrically based stream-discharge calibrations would assist in further refining the approach, especially in terms of estimating local to regional run-off coefficients.

Mineralogy of a Radioactive-Rare Earth Elements Occurrence in the Paleozoic Batholith, South-Central Chile

South-central Chile has some potential mineral resources including radioactive and rare earth elements (REE) minerals. This study reports some basic characteristics of the mineralogy of a radioactive-rare earth elements occurrence, related to a pegmatitic outcrop “Vertientes Pegmatite” hosted on Paleozoic granitic rocks of the South Coastal Batholith and discusses potential areas for REE deposits, particularly beach placers along the coastline of the BioBío region. In this pegmatite, X-ray diffraction analysis shows uranium-bearing minerals such as coffinite and metaschoepite, along with microcline, anorthoclase, albite, quartz and illite. Through optical microscopy and electron probe micro-analyzer (EPMA), rare earth minerals (monazite and xenotime) and radioactive minerals (thorite and thorium silicate ± uranium) were identified. Additionally, granitic rocks of the South Coastal Batholith around this pegmatite show rare earth minerals (monazite and allanite).

Exploratory Potential for Gold Placer Deposits in the Coastal Range, BioBío Region, South-Central Chile

Many gold placers located in the Coastal Range of south-central Chile have been exploited commercially during the past decades;nevertheless and until now, there are not any exploration studies of these placers and their basement. In order to provide an overview of exploratory potential, the stream sediments that are part of several gold placers in the northwest area of the BioBío region are analyzed, which have been registered on the basis of empirical evidence from artisanal mining activities. The overview consists of two goals: 1) determine the presence of auriferous occurrences (stream sediments and basement) and 2) identify potentially favorable areas to find gold placer deposits. Through optical microscopy this study characterized the metallic and non-metallic mineralogy of the basement, along with geochemical analyses of stream sediments and surrounding rocks of the placer deposits. The geochemical results show two sectors with high precious metal contents in sediments (up to 24 ppm of Au and 8 ppm of Ag) and two rocky outcrops with Au (757 and 41 ppb). Additionally, there are depressions in the study area that have received large amounts of sediments (reaching up to 170 m-thick), which are favorable places for the accumulation of auriferous sediments from nearby valleys due to the tectonic and structural conditions where they are located. Then, these results show an exploratory potential for gold placers and can be useful to delineate future exploration strategies in the Coastal Range of south-central Chile.

Improving Intelligibility and Pronunciation Through Phonics Instruction for 5th Grade EFL Learners of Chilean Public Schools

Based on the curriculum proposed by the Chilean Ministry of Education,schools are offered textbooks and complementary guides for teachers as a tool for the learning process of the students.Bearing in mind that the Ministry suggests a list of learning targets that must be accomplished at the end of the academic year,the author of said textbooks offers activities that are meant to fulfil these objectives.However,and considering that one of the goals of the Ministry is that 5th grade students,at the end of their learning process,communicate an intelligible message with a proper pronunciation,a lack of activities and methodologies focused on the improvement of these aspects can be noticed.Therefore,this proposal will present teachers with phonics as a methodology that may help students improve intelligibility and the recognition and production of segmental aspects of pronunciation.

Seismic imaging of the double seismic zone in the subducting slab in Northern Chile

Double seismic zones are commonly observed in the subducting slabs in a global scale,serving as ideal examples for studying the seismogenetic mechanism of the intermediate-depth earthquakes.In this study,we relocate earthquakes and determine seismic velocity models using the double-difference seismic tomography method in the northern Chile subduction zone where a double seismic zone exists.The results suggest that the double seismic zone in northern Chile is located at about 50-140 km depth,with an interval of approximately 20 km between the two zones.The upper seismic zone is characterized by relatively low Vp(~7.8-8.0 km/s),low Vs(~4.4-4.5 km/s)and high Vp/Vs(~1.85)above the depth of~90 km,while the region below~90 km is distinguished by relatively high Vp(~8.2 km/s),high Vs(~4.8 km/s)and slightly high Vp/Vs(~1.75),which may be related to a series of dehydration reactions of hydrous minerals in the subducted oceanic crust.In comparison,the lower seismic zone is featured by the anomaly of low Vp/Vs(~1.7),although some local areas may consist of relatively high Vp/Vs values(~1.8),possibly due to the dehydration reaction of serpentine.Based on the Vp,Vs,Vp/Vs anomalies combined with previous petrological experiments and thermodynamic models,it can be derived that intermediate-depth earthquakes are mainly related to the dehydration of various hydrous minerals in the subducting slab.The dehydration process of hydrous minerals releases water into the subducting slab and subsequently leads to the increase of pore fluid pressure and the decrease of effective normal stress,thus causing the occurrence of brittle failure and intermediate-depth earthquakes in subduction zones.The imaging results of the northern Chile subduction zone further indicate that the existence of the double seismic zone is related to the dehydration process of different hydrous minerals.

China is Attractive to Chile's Food Industry

This October is the tenth anniversary of the SinoChilean free trade agreement,which was the first free trade agreement China signed with a non-ASEAN country.Now,a decade later,China is the largest importer and exporter and trade partner of Chile,accounting for 28%of Chile’s foreign trade volume.As a gift to the tenth anniversary,since