China’s Partnership Diplomacy in the Middle East

Since the end of the Cold War,China has gradually formulated a global and multi-dimensional partnership network.China’s partnership diplomacy in the Middle East is a crucial component of said network,including partners in the Persian Gulf,the Eastern Mediterranean Sea,the Red Sea and the Maghreb region.Based on their level of importance to China,these countries can be roughly divided into four categories,namely"pivot states,""node states,""key states"and"stronghold states,"which constitute the portfolio of China’s partnership diplomacy in the region.In prospect,China’s partnership diplomacy will be evolving from bilateral cooperation to multilateral consultation,from partnership with sovereign states to that with international organizations,and from state-based partnership to issue-oriented partnership.

Wading in Troubled Waters： China＇s Middle East Diplomacy in the New Era

The current Middle East situation is characterized by accelerating multi-polarity, the intertwining sectarian politics and geopolitics, the impending crisis of US alliance system, the escalation of arms race, and the deterioration of terrorism and separatism. Syria, Iran, Yemen and Palestine-Israel peace process will remain the flashpoints. Within such a changed situation, China＇s Middle East policy is evolving from passiveness to aggressiveness. First, participation in the Middle East governance and protection of its practical interests are the two major pillars of China＇s diplomacy in the Middle East; second, bilateral and multilateral mechanisms are the major platforms; third, partnership instead of alliance is the unique China-styled coalition policy, and finally the ＂Belt and Road Initiative＂ is an important tool of Chinese Middle East diplomacy.

China’s Solutions to Security Governance in the Middle East:An Assessment

Over several decades,many intricate security issues in the Middle East,such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,the Iranian nuclear crisis,the Syrian conflict and terrorism,etc.,have greatly influenced regional and global security and stability.The international community has taken many measures to solve these problems,but they did not achieve the expected results.With the rise of China,the international community’s expectation for China to participate in global governance has also increased.Therefore,in recent years,China has taken an increasingly proactive stance on the Middle East security governance,transforming from a detached bystander into an active participant and initiator.To realize and maintain security and stability in the Middle East,China has put forward its own solutions to the security issues based on the principles of respecting sovereignty,non-interference of the internal affairs of other countries,objectivity and impartiality,comprehensive and fundamental governance,peaceful resolution,and multilateral participation.Although China’s solutions are not perfect yet and are faced with many criticisms,their prospects are optimistic.They have provided new ideas for the Middle East security governance.

The New Development of China-Middle East Relations since the Arab Upheaval

Since the upheaval,the Middle East region has been suffering from persisting conflicts and rising tension.China is facing a changing situation in the Middle East,along with increasingly mutual strategic reliance between China and the Middle East countries:on the one hand,the presence of Chinese interests in the Middle East is continuing to expand;on the other hand,since the 9/11,Middle Eastern countries have been generally in discord with the United States.As a result,Israel,Saudi Arabia and other countries are becoming increasingly willing to enhance relations with China,and significantly level up their expectation towards China accordingly.Within this context,China has actively promoted relations with Middle Eastern countries,with an image of a responsible,positive,and fair-minded actor in Middle East affairs.Accordingly,China’s interaction with the Middle East countries has stepped into a new stage.

On the Misperceptions between the Peoples of Turkey and China

Nations’misperception causes misinterpretations of reciprocal demands,actions;the other side’s expectations,inadequacies and priorities;and may form biases.But scholars,especially those studying international relations,generally attach utmost importance to the bilateral relations of politics,economy,culture and military.Foreign policy analysts and makers often disregard the impact of public opinion.This article tries to analyze the impact of the perceptions between Turkish and Chinese peoples to the relations of both countries.In case of this the main question of this presentation is whether the public’s attitude became a major hinder and heavily influenced the decision-makers or not on the basis of Turkish-Chinese relations.Diplomatic relations between Turkey and China in political and economic field have improved significantly in recent years.But the degree of favorability to people to people exchange is extremely low because of the influential factors,which are mostly stemmed from the issue of‘Eastern Turkistan’,the thoughts of the past,the trade imbalance and the media’s negative and adverse approach to the issues.In order to solve the low favorability problem,both sides not only should depend on exchange and dialogue institutionally,but also rely on social and cultural interactions informally to enhance the mutual understanding accordingly.

The Multiple Roles of Egypt in China’s‘Belt and Road’Initiative

Egypt was the first country in Africa and the Arab World to establish diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China.In 2016,the official visit of President Xi Jinping to Egypt began a new chapter in the two countries’relations and will open a brand-new page in their foreign affairs.This paper,based on the changes that have taken place in Egypt’s diplomacy,highlights the core concepts of Egypt’s diplomatic strategy towards China and focuses on how these outlooks can be compatible with China’s‘Belt and Road’Initiative(BRI).Egypt boasts many important features:a unique geographic location which makes Egypt the meeting point of the Arab World,Africa,Asia,and Europe through the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea;a unique civilisation and culture,with a longstanding history and interactions throughout millennia with the empires of Greece,Persia,Rome,Turkey,and more.Egypt is also considered a converging point of Islam and Christianity,boasting a relatively stable political and social order,and a fully-fledged economic system.All these features help Egypt to have global outreach;it contributes great value to China’s BRI and enables Egypt to play a key role in the world with China as a strategic partner.This paper also analyses the characteristics of Egypt’s new diplomacy and how they lay a solid foundation for the development of Sino-Egyptian relations.The strategic vision between Egypt and China is not limited to trade and investments,but there are still missing pieces to fill in which depend on the regional and global arenas,such as the Palestinian-Israeli conflict,Middle East security governance,national defense,and counterterrorism.

“Development First”:China’s Investment in Seaport Constructions and Operations along the Maritime Silk Road

Seaports are crucial pivots connecting a state’s national economy with the world economy.As the largest developing country and one of the largest seaport constructors and operators in the world,China insists on the importance of improving people’s livelihood by building key seaports infrastructure,airports,power plants,highways,and railways.Invited by the host countries,China has participated broadly in the construction and operations of commercial seaports along the Maritime Silk Road,which stretches from Southwest Asia to Eastern Africa and to the Mediterranean Sea and the Maghreb.Officials in Beijing argue that the fundamental task facing the majority of developing countries along the Maritime Silk Road is development,and suggest that“bread is more important than the ballot box”.One can anticipate that when the project is executed,the threats to China’s seaport construction will range from financial burdens,ethnic conflicts,attacks carried out by extremists,and cultural misunderstandings with the host nations to great power rivalries.

The Economic and Trade Factors in China’s National Image in the Arab Countries

In the context of globalization,although governments maintain the leading role in shaping the image of states,the increasing bilateral economic and trade exchanges are gradually becoming an equally important,if not more important,element.The recent years have witnessed a continuous growth of trade between China and Arab countries—a newly established crucial trading partner and platform for practicing the“going-out”strategy.Thanks to both sides complimenting each other,a positive win-win situation has been achieved.However,as more and more Chinese merchandises and enterprises have entered the Arab world,certain problems have emerged,such as poor quality of merchandises,illegal operation of enterprises,and difficulties of certain Chinese employees integrating into local life.These economic and trade elements have become key factors in shaping China’s image in the Arab countries,and hence should not be left unattended.

The China-Arab States Cooperation Forum:Achievements,Challenges and Prospects

The“China-Arab States Cooperation Forum”is an important cooperation mechanism between the Arab world and China.Though the forum has made remarkable achievements since its establishment,enormous challenges are still ahead.The largest challenge is that both sides have common aspirations for further achievements and integration,and for a closer relationship between China and the Arab World.The real strategic vision is not limited to trade and investment,but also includes security,national defense building,technology transfer and some other fields.To overcome these challenges,three problems must be taken care of.First,the two sides need to deepen their mutual understandings;second,both Chinese and Arabs must get rid of the deep cautiousness towards each other;and third,both parties need to develop a comprehensive outlook from an aspect of civilization.

Analysis on the Potential of Strategic Cooperation between China and OIC under the“Silk Road Strategy”Framework

The Organization of Islamic Cooperation has a unique influence in the global governance,such as Middle East issues and International Islamic development,and has become the most active international multilateral platform for Islam.Based on the context of the establishment of the organization and its development process,particularly,the agenda items and resolutions of the organization since 2000,this study clarifies the path of the OIC to advance agenda items and exert political influence on Islamic countries;this study also tracks the history of both official and civil exchanges between China and the OIC,proposes to seize the historic opportunity of the“Silk Road strategy”,and build a model of cooperation between China and the Arab-Islamic countries as the“natural partners of the Silk Road”and the“Silk Road Community”.

From Manchuria to Egypt: Soybean’s Global Migration and Transformation in the 20th Century

The collaboration between the Japanese and British empires in the first two decades of the 20th century facilitated the soybean’s migration out of Manchuria.When the two empires turned from collaborators to competitors prior to and during WWII however,the British Empire was forced to experiment with soybean cultivation in Egypt on its own in order to satisfy the demand of its vegetable oil crushing industry to make soap and detergent amongst other things.This article is not simply about the production and trade of soybean,but more importantly about the transformation of the commodity during the processes of trade,production and consumption outside its original zone of cultivation.Although soybeans provide significantly more protein per acre than most other uses of land,in Egypt the plant was classified as an inedible oilseed,such as cotton seeds,rather than an edible grain that can also produce oil,such as maize.As a result of such classification,the soybean was perceived as an industrial raw material,rather than a food item.Consequently,the simple food preparation technology that was intimately associated with the soybean as a human food in Manchuria did not embark on the journey to Egypt.During this process of global migration,the soybean was transformed from a human food item in Manchuria mainly consumed for its protein content to an industrial raw material in Egypt mainly utilized for its oil content.

China’s Major Approaches to Solving the Darfur Issue

China has been involving itself in the international efforts to solve the Sudanese Darfur problem since 2004.In this process,China has adopted three approaches to finding ways out of the crisis:multilateral cooperation,bilateral coordination,and the involvement of Chinese enterprises in Sudan.These approaches are interactive and mutually promoted in a consistent and effective frame.Multilateral activities in the UN provide more opportunities for China to assist in shaping the contents of the resolutions related to Darfur.China also pays attention to conducting cooperation with relevant regional organizations in this process.On the basis of its multilateral approach,the bilateral coordination on key issues between China and the US and,China and Sudan exert a significant impact on solving the problem.Chinese enterprises in Sudan also play a mixed role in the whole process through their economic influences there.

The New Silk Road in West Asia under“the Belt and Road”Initiative

From the perspective of energy,the construction of a shortcut,through which the oil pipeline can be directly extended to the Persian Gulf through Pakistan,is very beneficial to China's energy supply security.With“the Belt and road”Initiative,if China is able to build China-Pakistan Economic Corridor and Gulf Pearl chain,China would play an influential role in the Arabia Peninsula,as well as in Africa.Pakistan and the Six Gulf Countries are located in the western intersection zone of the belt and road,which makes them important partners of China in promoting“the Belt and Road”Initiative.Once the New Silk Road is built,not only China and its partners can mutually benefit,but also West Asia,East Asia,and Southeast Asian economies can be more closely integrated,an occurrence which will continue to enhance and enrich cooperation in“the Belt and Road”Initiative,and to broaden and extend the building space in it.

China-Arab Relations in the 60 Years’Evolution

The China-Arab relationship is one of the most significant and influential sections of China’s foreign relations,and also a key area of China’s diplomacy.China’s friendly communication and exchange with the Arab area can be traced back as early as to the time before the founding of the Islamic religion and the shaping of great Arab Empire.Since the 1950s,China gradually established formal diplomatic relations with all the Arab countries.In this process,bilateral connections between China and the whole Arab world have been broadened to diverse fields and deepened to various levels,creating tremendous progress in mutual understanding.The central principle upheld throughout the whole experience of China-Arab relationship is friendship and cooperation,while the core spirit prevalent in this bilateral relation is mutual respect and mutual support.

The Chinese Perspective on Conflict Resolution in the Gulf

The Middle East has been in a state of turbulence,poor governance and inadequate development for a long time.The Gulf remains stable,although it is caught up in various regional disputes.It is a major task for both the international community and regional countries to consider how to effectively resolve these conflicts,promote regional governance and eventually achieve the long-term stability of the Gulf and the entire Middle East.China,with its commitment to peace,development and cooperation,is cautiously participating in reforming the Middle Eastern governance system.It is devoted to building a new type of international relations and a community with a shared future of humankind,albeit in a prudent manner;it highlights being an important promoter of peace,stability and industrialisation in the Middle East;it also engages in peace talks and conflict resolution in an incremental manner.China is putting the concept of peaceful development and mutual benefits into practice and helps the Middle East to embark on a new road of comprehensive reform,but so far it lacks specific scenarios and concrete roadmaps for peace in the Gulf.It also stresses interconnectivity and amity via interaction,but the Gulf conflict resolutions still have a long way to go.This paper explores Chinese principles in resolving regional conflicts from the aspects of history,politics,development,security and civilisation,and forecasts what hurdles China may face on the road to playing a bigger role.

China’s Developing Foreign Policy Initiatives towards Major International Issues

Since 2006,it has become clearer that China is adopting a new approach to dealing with major international issues,such as the North Korea and Iran nuclear issues and the Darfur crisis in western Sudan.In all these issues China has contributed positively and has demonstrated a high degree of cooperation with other major powers in order to solve these problems.On the Iran and Korean nuclear issues,China has encouraged these countries to respect the nuclear non-proliferation regime while using her influence in Sudan to push the Sudanese government to accept the deployment of the United Nations-African Union forces in Darfur.