China’s Partnership Diplomacy in the Middle East

Since the end of the Cold War,China has gradually formulated a global and multi-dimensional partnership network.China’s partnership diplomacy in the Middle East is a crucial component of said network,including partners in the Persian Gulf,the Eastern Mediterranean Sea,the Red Sea and the Maghreb region.Based on their level of importance to China,these countries can be roughly divided into four categories,namely"pivot states,""node states,""key states"and"stronghold states,"which constitute the portfolio of China’s partnership diplomacy in the region.In prospect,China’s partnership diplomacy will be evolving from bilateral cooperation to multilateral consultation,from partnership with sovereign states to that with international organizations,and from state-based partnership to issue-oriented partnership.

Wading in Troubled Waters： China＇s Middle East Diplomacy in the New Era

The current Middle East situation is characterized by accelerating multi-polarity, the intertwining sectarian politics and geopolitics, the impending crisis of US alliance system, the escalation of arms race, and the deterioration of terrorism and separatism. Syria, Iran, Yemen and Palestine-Israel peace process will remain the flashpoints. Within such a changed situation, China＇s Middle East policy is evolving from passiveness to aggressiveness. First, participation in the Middle East governance and protection of its practical interests are the two major pillars of China＇s diplomacy in the Middle East; second, bilateral and multilateral mechanisms are the major platforms; third, partnership instead of alliance is the unique China-styled coalition policy, and finally the ＂Belt and Road Initiative＂ is an important tool of Chinese Middle East diplomacy.

The Belt and Road Initiatives and China＇s Middle East Energy Policy

The paper analyses the roots of the Belt and Road Initiative as well as China＇s Middle East Energy Policy in an age of great transformation. China＇s rapidly progressed economic growth leading to a dramatic increase in China＇s energy demand in recent years. The Middle East countries play a critical role in the international energy markets. Stable relations with the Middle East countries become increasingly important for Chinese energy security, and the continued development. The protection of these relations lies at the core of the Belt and Road Initiative. Within The Belt and Road Initiative, Chinese Middle East energy policy proceeds according to the energy cooperation framework known as ＂1＋2＋3＂, which seeks to build a reliable China-Arab strategic cooperative relationship based on long-term friendship. To avoid over dependence on the energy resources of the Middle East, China will also continue to search for other overseas energy sources and protect transportation channels. Despite risks and challenges associated with energy imports from the Middle East, China has cultivated strong relations with states in the region and will develop these economic ties further in the coming years.

China’s Diplomacy on the Hot Issues of Middle East:History,Ideas,Experiences and Impact

This article probes the types,impacts of hot issues of Middle East and the concept of diplomacy on international hot issues.Based on these researches,this article studies the historical evolution,central ideas and fundamental experiences of China’s diplomacy on the hot issues of Middle East,and analyzes the significance of China’s diplomacy on the hot issues of Middle East to the innovation of China’s foreign polices.

China’s Cultural and Public Diplomacy to Countries in the Middle East

Recently,China’s cultural and public diplomacy has aroused the increasing attention of the international community.As a political power,its cultural and public diplomacy mode has had a positive influence on many countries in the world.Through three main waves of the cultural exchanges between the Middle East and P.R.China,this article further summarizes the successful experience of new China’s cultural and public diplomacy model to Asia,Africa and Latin America.In the theoretical and practical level,it explains the basic model of cultural and public diplomacy:at the theoretical level and advocates the concept that government and people participate in it simultaneously,and countries coexist in harmony and peace.In the practical level,we maintain that cultural and public exchange and cooperation from a“multi-level,multi-track,and multi-field”,thus has promoted China’s post-Olympic era of cultural and public diplomacy.Finally,in ambassadors meeting held in August 2009,President Hu Jintao made an important speech on the implication of cultural and public diplomacy;the article summarizes four advices of constructing cultural and public diplomacy with Chinese characteristics.

China’s Proposition to Build a Community of Shared Future for Mankind and the Middle East Governance

The proposition to build a community of shared future for mankind is a new concept that the Chinese government has advocated after the 18th National Congress of the CPC,aiming to develop a new structure of international relations and upgrade the global governance model.As a Chinese proposition that reflects China’s wisdom,this concept is based on the long-standing cultural tradition and the advanced Chinese ideological system,representing a new perspective for international cooperation and international order and the new concepts of development,security and civilization.This proposition offers the right direction for the ongoing efforts to improve global governance.The governance in the Middle East is a weak link in global governance,but it is a critical factor for improvement.As a rising power,China is playing an increasingly prominent and constructive role in the Middle East governance.China’s proposition to build a community of shared future for mankind and the“Belt and Road”initiative does not only fit very well in the diverse cultural context of the Middle East,but also support the realistic needs of the people there.The proposition,as well as the initiative,will surely drive the improvement of governance in the Middle East and help the region solve issues hindering development and achieve lasting and universal peace.

Comparative Analysis of China’s Energy Activities in the Middle East and Africa

The Middle East and African oil have now accounted for 70%of China’s total oil imports and will have to be China’s major sources of crude oil imports in the future,which means that Beijing will continue to emphasize its energy requirement activities and to forge closer energy cooperation with both regions.China’s energy activities in the Middle East and Africa have similar trade and investment patterns and also similar risks,the“Oil of Politics”such as the Iranian nuclear crisis and the Sudan/Darfur crisis will be the biggest challenges that Beijing faces in the Middle East and Africa.China’s energy activities in the Middle East are somewhat restrained and moderate,given its limited political influence and the instable geopolitical situations in the region.However,China’s energy requirement activities in Africa by means of energy diplomacy,technological and economic assistance,foreign aid and loans and debt cancellation,have and will continue to expand Beijing’s presence and influence in the region,having different geopolitical implications for Beijing,Africa and the West.

From A By-stander to A Constructor:China and the Middle East Security Governance

In the 21st century,Middle East conflicts can generally be classified into four types,namely,conflicts between outside powers and Middle East countries,between Middle East countries themselves,between different political parties and religious sects within a sovereign country,as well as transnational and cross-bordering conflicts.The mode of China’s participation in Middle East security governance includes the political,security and social conflicts.There are three categories of domestic mechanisms in Chinese practice,specifically,the special envoy mechanism by Chinese Foreign Ministry,the procession and peace-keeping mechanisms by Chinese Defense Ministry and the foreign aid mechanism by Chinese Ministry of Commerce.The China-Arab States Cooperation Forum,the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation,the UN and other international organizations constitute the major international regimes for China’s security governance.China’s Middle East security governance creates not only“public goods”for the region,but also a means for China to build constructive great power relations with the US,EU and Russia,among others.The styles of Chinese and Western security governance in the Middle East vary,and the Chinese side places more emphasis on improving the Middle East people’s well-being at the top of the agenda,following“up-bottom”roadmap,and seeking an incremental,consultative,inclusive,and selective governance in the Middle East conflict resolution.

Large-Scale Upheaval in the Middle East and China’s Diplomatic Reactions

Arab countries have been faced with a large scale Middle Eastern upheaval,which has attracted the attention of all the Middle Eastern countries and international community.The current situation is primarily related to the important location of the Middle East.Nearly all the Arab countries are involved in the upheaval.Omnifarious appeals are claimed by the people,including political,economic and social aspects.The problems have been accumulating for years,and the Middle East upheaval in 2011 was an overall outburst of people’s dissatisfaction.The cost of the unrest is high despite the social progress it may promote.At present,a fragile peace is realized in Syria though the prospect of future development is unclear.Since the outbreak of the Middle East upheaval,China has adopted a principle of“non-intervention in other’s internal affairs”and“mediating for peace while promoting talks”policy,which is appropriate and proactive.China should adhere to this practice in the future despite the voices of opposition and temporary misunderstanding.

On the Strategic Relationship between China and Islamic Countries in the Middle East

The relationship between China and the Islamic countries has been of strategic significance;mutual understanding and mutual respect in their political ties has been the mainstream in the bilateral relationship.Since the founding of new China,their relationship has undergone two phases:from bilateral to multilateral relations and from mainly in the political field to comprehensive ties in the economic and trade,resources,security,culture and other fields.For future development of bilateral relationships,issues such as misjudgment and misunderstanding,trade imbalance and conflicts of interest must be resolved.To do so,strategic significance must be attached to bilateral relationships so as to uplift the strategic position of the Middle East in the overall Chinese diplomacy,establish a Middle East strategy with Chinese characteristics and strengthen China's cultural diplomacy including religious communication with the Islamic countries in the Middle East.

The Upheaval in the Middle East and China’s Middle East Policy

Due to more than one-year’s upheaval,many Middle Eastern countries experienced regime change,and Syria is the next target and center of this political swirl.The rise of Islamic force is a serious problem for these countries in transition to deal with.Because of this upheaval,the Middle Eastern configuration is facing challenges;the contradiction within regional powers is experiencing growth and decline.The adjustment of America’s Middle East policy has affected the trend of Middle East situation.China’s“non-interference in others’internal affairs”principle gains international society’s interpretation,and China’s diplomacy towards the Middle East is facing important opportunity and enormous challenges.China should seize the opportunity and seek the new development of China-Middle East relations.

China’s Economic Restructuring and Extension of China’s Middle East Strategy

Joint construction of“the Silk Road Economic Belt”and“the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century”is not only the objective requirement of China’s further economic development and its deepening reform and opening policy,especially its national strategy of“opening to the west”,but also a major historical opportunity for the development of the Asia-Europe countries particularly the Middle East countries.While Chinese economy achieved remarkable development,the economy of the Middle Eastern countries ploughed through the turmoil and fighting.From the point of view of the global economy,the economies of China and of the Middle East countries are at different stages of historical development.This kind of difference just reflected the complementarity in their economic cooperation.The two sides ought to grasp this historical opportunity,use complementary advantages and achieve win-win cooperation.With the status of the Middle East in China’s diplomacy being definitely rising,China’s Middle East strategy should grasp four points of emphasis,such as expansion of the international political space,strengthening of national security,promotion of trade and economic cooperation,and enhancing soft power.

China’s Energy Cooperation with Middle East Oil-producing Countries

China is rich in coal, but insufficient in petroleum and gas. The energy shortage is not a general shortage but a structural imbalance. In recent years, China's dependence on foreign oil supplies keeps increasing to meet the needs of China's rapid economic growth. China's top leadership, for this goal, has committed itself to energy diplomacy and vigorously promoted China's energy cooperation with Middle East oil-producing countries. In the current conditions, carrying out energy cooperation with the Middle East oil-producing countries is inevitable and beneficial to China’s security. China and the Middle East oil-producing countries have maintained friendly and cooperative relations: mutual political, economic complementarities and cultural fusion, which create a favorable environment for cooperation for extracting and removing the Middle East oil. As for the problems and difficulties exposed in carrying out energy cooperation in the Middle East, China should bravely face them and seriously resolve them.

Middle East Terrorism,Global Governance and China’s Anti-terror Policy

The anti-terror campaign in the Middle East is the key and influential part of global anti-terror endeavor,which is one of the most challenging global governance issues in the international community.It is closely linked with the transformation of the international system and the reconstruction of the world’s new political and economic order.Within the background of economic globalization,the Middle East Islamic countries are confronted with the problems of promoting reform and development,facilitating institutional reform and social transformation.Internally,the Middle East terrorism originates from the complicated historical,social,religious and ethnic conflicts;externally,the Middle East terrorism hinges on interference,invasion,occupation,and the rival for territory,recourses and interest.China’s anti-terror endeavor aims at protecting its overseas interest and meanwhile,it reflects China’s unique idea and mode of global governance.

China’s Energy Strategy and Primary Role of the Middle East in This Strategy

In face of challenges to its energy security,China has been making adjustments in its energy policy and energy development strategy since mid-1990s,and implementing a strategy for overseas energy development.Compared with Central Asia,Latin America,Southeast Asia and West Africa,the Middle East is still the major source for China’s overseas energy cooperation and development.To avoid over-dependence on the energy resources in the Middle East,China seeks more overseas energy sources and transportation channels other than those in or connected to the Middle East.However,the primary role of the Middle East in China’s overall strategy for overseas energy development is still irreplaceable by that of any other region,at least for the near future.This situation will surely produce an increasingly important impact on China’s Middle East policy,moving China to take a more active posture in the political and economic arena of the region.It can even be expected that China to maintain its stable and friendly relations with Middle East countries,will,more likely than ever,act as a diplomatic mediator in trying to resolve certain longstanding conflicts in the region.

Development of Sino-Arab Relations and the Evolution of China’s Middle East Policy in the New Era

China and the Arab countries enjoy a long history of friendly exchanges.During the Cold War period,significant accomplishments were achieved in their bilateral political cooperation.Recent years have witnessed the great success of comprehensive cooperation toward mutual benefits within the framework of the China-Arab Cooperation Forum.However,the turbulence in the Middle East and the U.S.Greater Middle East Initiative have emerged as a new challenge to the future development of bilateral relations.Yet China’s Middle East policy has not remained stagnant;its prompt readjustments have brought momentum to the healthy development of Sino-Arab bilateral relations.

Analysis on the Trends of the Middle East Turmoil

The extremist organization“IS”brought additional chaos to the Middle East.It is expected that Egypt will restore order.The main hot spot issues have witnessed some changes but are still hard to solve.The US is the producer of the Middle East turmoil.Internal disputes in the Middle East are still prevalent.China still has great potential to develop the friendship and cooperation with Middle East countries.

中国参与中东地区卫生治理的多视角分析

中国参与中东地区的卫生治理以医疗援助为主要形式,迄今已有半个多世纪的历史。中国对阿拉伯国家的医疗援助不仅极大地推动了中阿关系的发展,也是中国与阿拉伯国家"民心相通"的历史基础所在。21世纪初以来,尤其是在中东综合呼吸症大范围爆发和中东难民危机升级后,中国对中东传统意义上"点对点"式的医疗援助模式,已不能适应全球化时代出现的中东地区公共卫生治理的新要求。中东卫生治理的全球性关联及其带来的非传统安全效应,已经对中国参与中东卫生治理提出了新要求和新挑战,特别是"一带一路"倡议的推进,更加凸显中国参与中东卫生治理的重要性。

中国北斗卫星导航系统落户阿拉伯世界的机遇与风险

卫星导航系统是大国硬实力的重要标志,是科技外交的载体。新时期,大国在卫星导航系统领域已经形成了"一超"(美国的GPS系统)、"多强"(欧盟的伽利略、俄罗斯的格洛纳斯与中国的北斗系统)和"多中心"(印度区域导航卫星系统和日本准天顶卫星导航系统)的格局。北斗卫星导航系统在阿拉伯世界的推广是"一带一路"战略的重要内容,是深化中国与阿盟战略合作伙伴关系、实现"互联互通"的重要举措,也是北斗系统"走出去"战略和未来十年加快全球布局的重要一步。北斗系统落户阿拉伯世界涉及安全、政治、经济和技术等四个维度的问题,其在阿拉伯世界推广面临政治风险、安全风险、法律风险和社会文化风险等四类挑战。北斗系统在阿拉伯世界的推广应坚持循序渐进的原则,在海湾地区、东地中海地区和北非地区应分别确立支点国家,通过支点国家形成示范与辐射效应,为今后北斗系统全面打开中东和非洲市场奠定基础。