Research Report on China's Policy toward Central/East European Countries

With the admission of eight Central/East European countries in May 1, 2004 in sight, realization of the objective of EU’s first phase eastern extension will signify a major step toward the concept of "a Europe kept far away from war" through promoting regional integration.

Middle East Terrorism,Global Governance and China’s Anti-terror Policy

The anti-terror campaign in the Middle East is the key and influential part of global anti-terror endeavor,which is one of the most challenging global governance issues in the international community.It is closely linked with the transformation of the international system and the reconstruction of the world’s new political and economic order.Within the background of economic globalization,the Middle East Islamic countries are confronted with the problems of promoting reform and development,facilitating institutional reform and social transformation.Internally,the Middle East terrorism originates from the complicated historical,social,religious and ethnic conflicts;externally,the Middle East terrorism hinges on interference,invasion,occupation,and the rival for territory,recourses and interest.China’s anti-terror endeavor aims at protecting its overseas interest and meanwhile,it reflects China’s unique idea and mode of global governance.

China’s Non-proliferation Policy and the Implementation of WMD Regimes in the Middle East

The interaction between China and the Middle East on the issue of arms transfer and non-proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction(WMD)has elicited great concern since the 1980s.It was also during this period that China was accused,primarily by the US,of being involved in WMD-related transfers to the Middle East.The paper examines China’s changing attitudes towards major international non-proliferation regimes and cases of US allegations of China’s exports of WMDs to the Middle East.It argues that China’s stance on abiding by the WMD regimes in the Middle East has been consistent with the principles of diplomacy which emphasizes peace and the pursuit of its good image as a responsible great power.China abides by the international WMD regimes and is seeking more cooperation in non-proliferation with other countries,and its efforts deserve acknowledgement.

The Upheaval in the Middle East and China’s Middle East Policy

Due to more than one-year’s upheaval,many Middle Eastern countries experienced regime change,and Syria is the next target and center of this political swirl.The rise of Islamic force is a serious problem for these countries in transition to deal with.Because of this upheaval,the Middle Eastern configuration is facing challenges;the contradiction within regional powers is experiencing growth and decline.The adjustment of America’s Middle East policy has affected the trend of Middle East situation.China’s“non-interference in others’internal affairs”principle gains international society’s interpretation,and China’s diplomacy towards the Middle East is facing important opportunity and enormous challenges.China should seize the opportunity and seek the new development of China-Middle East relations.

Development of Sino-Arab Relations and the Evolution of China’s Middle East Policy in the New Era

China and the Arab countries enjoy a long history of friendly exchanges.During the Cold War period,significant accomplishments were achieved in their bilateral political cooperation.Recent years have witnessed the great success of comprehensive cooperation toward mutual benefits within the framework of the China-Arab Cooperation Forum.However,the turbulence in the Middle East and the U.S.Greater Middle East Initiative have emerged as a new challenge to the future development of bilateral relations.Yet China’s Middle East policy has not remained stagnant;its prompt readjustments have brought momentum to the healthy development of Sino-Arab bilateral relations.

China’s Proposition to Build a Community of Shared Future for Mankind and the Middle East Governance

The proposition to build a community of shared future for mankind is a new concept that the Chinese government has advocated after the 18th National Congress of the CPC,aiming to develop a new structure of international relations and upgrade the global governance model.As a Chinese proposition that reflects China’s wisdom,this concept is based on the long-standing cultural tradition and the advanced Chinese ideological system,representing a new perspective for international cooperation and international order and the new concepts of development,security and civilization.This proposition offers the right direction for the ongoing efforts to improve global governance.The governance in the Middle East is a weak link in global governance,but it is a critical factor for improvement.As a rising power,China is playing an increasingly prominent and constructive role in the Middle East governance.China’s proposition to build a community of shared future for mankind and the“Belt and Road”initiative does not only fit very well in the diverse cultural context of the Middle East,but also support the realistic needs of the people there.The proposition,as well as the initiative,will surely drive the improvement of governance in the Middle East and help the region solve issues hindering development and achieve lasting and universal peace.

Large-Scale Upheaval in the Middle East and China’s Diplomatic Reactions

Arab countries have been faced with a large scale Middle Eastern upheaval,which has attracted the attention of all the Middle Eastern countries and international community.The current situation is primarily related to the important location of the Middle East.Nearly all the Arab countries are involved in the upheaval.Omnifarious appeals are claimed by the people,including political,economic and social aspects.The problems have been accumulating for years,and the Middle East upheaval in 2011 was an overall outburst of people’s dissatisfaction.The cost of the unrest is high despite the social progress it may promote.At present,a fragile peace is realized in Syria though the prospect of future development is unclear.Since the outbreak of the Middle East upheaval,China has adopted a principle of“non-intervention in other’s internal affairs”and“mediating for peace while promoting talks”policy,which is appropriate and proactive.China should adhere to this practice in the future despite the voices of opposition and temporary misunderstanding.

Middle East Geopolitics and China-India Strategic Interaction in the New Era

In the past,the nature of global geopolitical interactions among states has seen Europe and the United States emerge as dominant players in Middle East regional politics.This assertion is based on the overstretched geostrategic interests of Europe and the United States(US)tied up with controlling strategic goods,such as crude oil and gas,as well as maintaining freedom of navigation.These three variables-oil,gas and water routes-were the most critical components that attracted global powers to engage with the Middle East.Recent developments,however,suggest that two rising Asian powers,China and India,are becoming increasingly involved in Middle East regional affairs.Both countries have recognised the critical role of the region in their future economic growth and development and have embedded the region into their national strategic plan.However,the region faces issues-such as terrorism,internal strife,particularly in Syria,maritime security,hunger and poverty,especially in Yemen,the recent US-Iran conflict and the COVID-19 global pandemic-that may influence the operationalisation and outcome of the future strategic plan of China and India.These current challenges thus require the Asian powers to reassess each other’s strategy.This paper analyses how China and India adapt their strategic interests in accordance to the compounding realities in the Middle East.In particular,it seeks to answer two relevant questions:To what extent can China and India engage the region in the coming years?Given their national interests and priorities vis-
a-vis the Middle East,can we expect more cooperation than competition between these two Asian powers?Central to this is a thesis that cooperation among these two powers is more promising and effective,at least in those mentioned issues,despite their divergent national interests and historical rivalries.

From A By-stander to A Constructor:China and the Middle East Security Governance

In the 21st century,Middle East conflicts can generally be classified into four types,namely,conflicts between outside powers and Middle East countries,between Middle East countries themselves,between different political parties and religious sects within a sovereign country,as well as transnational and cross-bordering conflicts.The mode of China’s participation in Middle East security governance includes the political,security and social conflicts.There are three categories of domestic mechanisms in Chinese practice,specifically,the special envoy mechanism by Chinese Foreign Ministry,the procession and peace-keeping mechanisms by Chinese Defense Ministry and the foreign aid mechanism by Chinese Ministry of Commerce.The China-Arab States Cooperation Forum,the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation,the UN and other international organizations constitute the major international regimes for China’s security governance.China’s Middle East security governance creates not only“public goods”for the region,but also a means for China to build constructive great power relations with the US,EU and Russia,among others.The styles of Chinese and Western security governance in the Middle East vary,and the Chinese side places more emphasis on improving the Middle East people’s well-being at the top of the agenda,following“up-bottom”roadmap,and seeking an incremental,consultative,inclusive,and selective governance in the Middle East conflict resolution.

China’s Economic Restructuring and Extension of China’s Middle East Strategy

Joint construction of“the Silk Road Economic Belt”and“the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century”is not only the objective requirement of China’s further economic development and its deepening reform and opening policy,especially its national strategy of“opening to the west”,but also a major historical opportunity for the development of the Asia-Europe countries particularly the Middle East countries.While Chinese economy achieved remarkable development,the economy of the Middle Eastern countries ploughed through the turmoil and fighting.From the point of view of the global economy,the economies of China and of the Middle East countries are at different stages of historical development.This kind of difference just reflected the complementarity in their economic cooperation.The two sides ought to grasp this historical opportunity,use complementary advantages and achieve win-win cooperation.With the status of the Middle East in China’s diplomacy being definitely rising,China’s Middle East strategy should grasp four points of emphasis,such as expansion of the international political space,strengthening of national security,promotion of trade and economic cooperation,and enhancing soft power.

The Turbulent Middle East: Analysing Security Issues facing China’s Belt and Road Initiative towards the Region

Since the announcement of the‘Belt and Road Initiative’(BRI)in 2013,China has yet to unveil the greatest challenge facing the implementation of this initiative.The Middle East offers both strategic as well as resource opportunities for China but the region remains fluid and unstable security wise.Shaky regional alliances,a dissatisfied labour force,pressures from non-state actors,gender discrimination and human rights abuses and sustained external intervention are just some of the security issues facing the Middle East.How would China navigate itself in such a volatile region without jeopardizing its interests and without breaking the principles of non-intervention and sovereignty?More importantly,what type of power does China want to project vis-a-vis the region?This paper argues that the Middle East region,among all the world’s regions,is the most critical for the success of the BRI.China’s ability to maximize gains amidst regional security challenges will determine the future of its global political and economic influences.The region is a test for China’s diplomacy and credibility,which are crucial for its status as a future global power.

On the Strategic Relationship between China and Islamic Countries in the Middle East

The relationship between China and the Islamic countries has been of strategic significance;mutual understanding and mutual respect in their political ties has been the mainstream in the bilateral relationship.Since the founding of new China,their relationship has undergone two phases:from bilateral to multilateral relations and from mainly in the political field to comprehensive ties in the economic and trade,resources,security,culture and other fields.For future development of bilateral relationships,issues such as misjudgment and misunderstanding,trade imbalance and conflicts of interest must be resolved.To do so,strategic significance must be attached to bilateral relationships so as to uplift the strategic position of the Middle East in the overall Chinese diplomacy,establish a Middle East strategy with Chinese characteristics and strengthen China's cultural diplomacy including religious communication with the Islamic countries in the Middle East.

Comparative Analysis of China’s Energy Activities in the Middle East and Africa

The Middle East and African oil have now accounted for 70%of China’s total oil imports and will have to be China’s major sources of crude oil imports in the future,which means that Beijing will continue to emphasize its energy requirement activities and to forge closer energy cooperation with both regions.China’s energy activities in the Middle East and Africa have similar trade and investment patterns and also similar risks,the“Oil of Politics”such as the Iranian nuclear crisis and the Sudan/Darfur crisis will be the biggest challenges that Beijing faces in the Middle East and Africa.China’s energy activities in the Middle East are somewhat restrained and moderate,given its limited political influence and the instable geopolitical situations in the region.However,China’s energy requirement activities in Africa by means of energy diplomacy,technological and economic assistance,foreign aid and loans and debt cancellation,have and will continue to expand Beijing’s presence and influence in the region,having different geopolitical implications for Beijing,Africa and the West.

China’s Energy Strategy and Primary Role of the Middle East in This Strategy

In face of challenges to its energy security,China has been making adjustments in its energy policy and energy development strategy since mid-1990s,and implementing a strategy for overseas energy development.Compared with Central Asia,Latin America,Southeast Asia and West Africa,the Middle East is still the major source for China’s overseas energy cooperation and development.To avoid over-dependence on the energy resources in the Middle East,China seeks more overseas energy sources and transportation channels other than those in or connected to the Middle East.However,the primary role of the Middle East in China’s overall strategy for overseas energy development is still irreplaceable by that of any other region,at least for the near future.This situation will surely produce an increasingly important impact on China’s Middle East policy,moving China to take a more active posture in the political and economic arena of the region.It can even be expected that China to maintain its stable and friendly relations with Middle East countries,will,more likely than ever,act as a diplomatic mediator in trying to resolve certain longstanding conflicts in the region.

Analysis on the Trends of the Middle East Turmoil

The extremist organization“IS”brought additional chaos to the Middle East.It is expected that Egypt will restore order.The main hot spot issues have witnessed some changes but are still hard to solve.The US is the producer of the Middle East turmoil.Internal disputes in the Middle East are still prevalent.China still has great potential to develop the friendship and cooperation with Middle East countries.

An Analysis of ‘Belt and Road’ Initiative and the Middle East

The‘Belt and Road’Initiative features prominently in China’s foreign and geo-economic policies.The aim of this initiative is to strengthen Beijing’s economic leadership through a programme for infrastructure building throughout China’s neighbouring regions.At the same time,this will help Chinese industries at home while they are still modernising.Under this initiative,the Middle East figures prominently due to its rich hydrocarbon resources along with its need to develop its infrastructure in various Persian Gulf nations.Therefore,the current topic is an exploration of the relations between China’s‘Belt and Road’Initiative and the Middle East and its broader implications on the region.China is trying to present itself as a plausible alternative to the traditional great power politics at play in the region and with fresh tactics.This‘Belt and Road’Initiative is trying to increase China’s economic reach in the Middle East.At the same time,Beijing holds a unique position of being friendly with all the Middle Eastern leaders.Thus,the study will help to understand China’s rising power in the Middle East through its economic prowess and growing military strength.In this regard,it becomes imperative to study China’s progress of‘Belt and Road’Initiative in the Middle Eastern region.

China’s Policy Options towards Iran

Chinese kept good relations with Persians in history.The two peoples began their intercourse more than two thousand years ago.Nowadays,oil,trade,North-western China’s security and international support are factors pushing Beijing to cooperate with Teheran.On the other hand,the US and other countries have paid more attention to Sino-Iranian relations,and these relations have encountered several troubles.At present there are several arguments in China on policy options toward Iran,for example,to continue a pro-Iran policy;to support the US policy;to sit on the fence or stand by.China's dynamic Iran policy may be affected by some new factors in the future,such as China’s self-position and other(major)Powers’attitudes toward China.

China’s Developing Foreign Policy Initiatives towards Major International Issues

Since 2006,it has become clearer that China is adopting a new approach to dealing with major international issues,such as the North Korea and Iran nuclear issues and the Darfur crisis in western Sudan.In all these issues China has contributed positively and has demonstrated a high degree of cooperation with other major powers in order to solve these problems.On the Iran and Korean nuclear issues,China has encouraged these countries to respect the nuclear non-proliferation regime while using her influence in Sudan to push the Sudanese government to accept the deployment of the United Nations-African Union forces in Darfur.

关于中国——中东能源关系发展的若干思考

在过去的几年里,随着中国对中东石油依赖的日益增长,中国—中东双边政治、经济、外交和战略关系进入快速发展时期,中东石油在中国能源安全战略中的地位和作用日益凸显,中国的中东政策面临多重挑战,中国需要重新评估和更加突出中东石油在中国对外战略中的战略定位,重视双边能源合作机制建设的重要性,以确保中东石油对中国的长期和稳定供应。此外,中国在中东的能源利益已经引起美国等西方国家的高度关注和忧虑,引起了中国与美国的能源地缘政治冲突,为此中国的中东政策还必须兼顾与美国等西方国家的利益关系平衡,寻求中美在中东石油安全和广泛问题上的共同利益。