(Re)assessing Climate-Smart Agriculture practices for sustainable food systems outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa:The case of Bono East Region,Ghana

This research paper assesses the reality of Climate-Smart Agriculture(CSA)practices’potential to promote the outcomes of sustainable food systems(SFS)within Ghana’s smallholding agriculture context.The study demon-strates that rural farmers generally perceive CSA’s contribution to‘food and nutrition security’and‘economic performance’as more important than CSA’s contribution to‘social equity’and‘environmental stewardship’.From a narrow perspective,the study demonstrates that farmers perceive CSA’s potential to‘prevent pest and disease outbreaks’and‘increase human capital information’as the most important contribution of CSA to SFS outcomes.In contrast,CSA’s potential to promote environmental stewardship is perceived as the least important among Ghana’s rural farmers.This enormity of displacement of smallholders’perceptions at large is motivated by de-mographic,socioeconomic and ecological factors.Moreso,the CSA for SFS outcomes narratives is driven by farmers’self-apprise,social networks and other local information dissemination agents.Furthermore,research findings suggest farmers’awareness of CSA practices and interventions is deficient owing to unmet training and information needs for approximately 82%of the CSA practices and interventions.This situation elucidates the dichotomy of CSA practices’narratives as tools for attaining food,nutrition security and economic performance to the detriment of critical issues such as increasing awareness and building farmers’capacity to engage with CSA practices while also managing socio-ecological trade-offs that emerge over time due to engagement with CSA.Critical(re)orientation is needed across the scale to drive CSA practices and interventions that confine cli-mate adaptation and food production practices within safe planetary boundaries without undermining social,economic,food and nutrition security needs.

Synergies and trade-offs of climate-smart agriculture(CSA)practices selected by smallholder farmers in Geshy watershed,Southwest Ethiopia

Studies on mainstreaming climate-smart agriculture(CSA)practices can increase smallholder farmers’capacity and awareness to improve food security and establish sustainable livelihoods through resilient agricultural systems,while achieving adaptation and mitigation benefits.Hence,valuable insights can be obtained from smallholder farmers in responding to present and forthcoming challenges of climate change impacts.However,there is little research work on trade-off and synergy assessments.Taking Geshy watershed in Southwest Ethiopia as a case study area,both quantitative and qualitative data analysis were undertaken in this study.The data were collected from 15 key informant interviews,6 focus group discussions,and 384 households to answer the following questions:(1)what are the top 5 preferred CSA practices for smallholder farmers in Geshy watershed when coping with the impacts of climate change?(2)What is the performance of the preferred CSA practices?And(3)which trade-offs and synergies are experienced upon the implementation of CSA practices?The study came up with the most preferred CSA practices such as the use of improved crop varieties,small-scale irrigation,improved animal husbandry,the use of efficient inorganic fertilizers,and crop rotation with legumes.The selected CSA practices showed that the productivity goal exhibit the best synergy,while the mitigation goal has trade-offs.The study also indicated that the use of improved crop varieties causes high synergies in all 3 goals of CSA practices;small-scale irrigation provides a medium synergy on productivity goal but high synergy for adaptation and mitigation goals;improved animal husbandry shows a high synergy with the adaptation goal,a relatively lower synergy with the productivity goal,and a trade-off with the mitigation goal;the use of efficient inorganic fertilizers shows maximum synergy for the productivity and adaptation goals;and crop rotation with legumes exhibits high synergy with the productivity and mitigation goals but a relatively lower synergy with the adaptation goal.These results can provide evidence to various stakeholder farmers in the value chain that the impacts of climate change can be addressed by the adoption of CSA practices.In general,CSA practices are considered indispensable.Smallholder farmers prefer CSA practices that help to increase crop productivity and household resilience to climate change impacts.The results generate a vital foundation for recommendations to smallholder farming decision-makers.It also sensitizes actions for innovative and sustainable methods that are able to upscale the preferred CSA practices in the agricultural system in Geshy watershed of Southwest Ethiopia and other regions.

Motivations,enablers and barriers to the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices by smallholder farmers:Evidence from the transitional and savannah agroecological zones of Ghana

This paper examined the prioritized climate-smart agricultural practices by smallholder farmers,the motivations of adopting climate-smart agricultural practices,the enablers to the successful adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices,and the barriers to the successful adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices in the transitional and savannah agroecological zones of Ghana.Specifically,we employed ethnographic research using participatory approaches,including two stakeholder workshops and household surveys with 1061 households in the transitional and savannah agroecological zones of Ghana.The weighted average index(WAI)and problem confrontation index(PCI)were used to rank smallholder farmers’perceived enablers to the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices and the barriers affecting climate-smart agricultural practices,respectively.Results suggest that the majority of the respondents used a suite of climate-smart agricultural practices,including the timely harvesting of produce and storage,emergency seed banking,appropriate and timely weed and pest control,and early planting as practices to build climate resilience.The majority of smallholder farmers primarily employed climate-smart agricultural practices to improve household food security(96.2%),reduce pests and diseases(95.6%),and obtain higher yields and greater farm income(93.2%).Findings also show that secured land tenure system arrangement,understanding the effects of climate change,and access to sustainable agricultural technologies were ranked the first,second,and third most important enablers to the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices with the WAI values of 2.86,2.75,and 2.70,respectively.Key barriers to the successful adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices included incidences of pests and diseases(PCI=2530),inadequate access to agricultural credit(PCI=2502),high cost of improved crop varieties(PCI=2334),and limited government support with farm inputs(PCI=2296).Smallholder farmers need to be better supported through the provision of appropriate institutional and policy arrangements together with improved land management extension advice to overcome these barriers and facilitate the more effective implementation of climate-smart agricultural practices in Ghana.

Videos in Improving Farmers’ Innovation Capacity for Climate-Smart Forest and Agricultural Practices: An Experience of Madhupur Sal Forest in Bangladesh

Madhupur Sal forest is one of the major forests in Bangladesh which is also under intimidation of severe deforestation due to settlement of the ethnic people and encroachment for farming. However, deforestation is one of the major factors responsible for climatic change events like recurrent natural calamities and degradation of natural resources. Thus, a pilot project was taken in the forest area by Bangladesh Agricultural University to minimize carbon emission through introduction of low emission agricultural practices (vermi-compost and botanical pesticide) in crop production and to increase women’s participation in social forestry program. It also introduced improved cooker in the study area for reducing amount of fire wood for cooking. Video mediated extension approach was used to teach the people of the forest community regarding the consequences of climate change on their livelihoods. Findings showed that, project beneficiaries are now impressively aware on consequences of climate change issues. Around 75% of them are now using own made vermi-compost and botanical pesticide in agricultural production mixed with social forestry, while 42% of them are using improved cooker which has significantly reduced amount of fire wood for cooking. This is ultimately contributing in minimizing the rate of deforestation. However, the project initiatives have created alternate income opportunities of the forest community people through safe and organic cultivation of vegetables and fruits in the leased land. On the other hand, this social forestry programme will directly contribute in reducing consequences of climate change in the long run.

A systematic review of climate change impacts,adaptation strategies,and policy development in West Africa

Climate change studies are diverse with no single study giving a comprehensive review of climate change impacts,adaptation strategies,and policy development in West Africa.The unavailability of an all-inclusive study to serve as a guide for practitioners affects the effectiveness of climate change adaptation strategies proposed and adopted in the West African sub-region.The purpose of this study was to review the impacts of climate change risks on the crop,fishery,and livestock sectors,as well as the climate change adaptation strategies and climate-related policies aimed at helping to build resilient agricultural production systems in West Africa.The review process followed a series of rigorous stages until the final selection of 56 articles published from 2009 to 2023.Generally,the results highlighted the adverse effects of climate change risks on food security.We found a continuous decline in food crop production.Additionally,the livestock sector experienced morbidity and mortality,as well as reduction in meat and milk production.The fishery sector recorded loss of fingerlings,reduction in fish stocks,and destruction of mariculture and aquaculture.In West Africa,climate-smart agriculture technologies,physical protection of fishing,and inclusion of gender perspectives in programs appear to be the major adaptation strategies.The study therefore recommends the inclusion of ecosystem and biodiversity restoration,weather insurance,replacement of unsafe vessels,and strengthening gender equality in all climate change mitigation programs,as these will help to secure enough food for present and future generations.

Assessing farmers' contribution to greenhouse gas emission and the impact of adopting climate-smart agriculture on mitigation

Background:The adoption of climate-smart agricultural(CSA)practices is expected to improve farmers’adaptation to climate change and also increase yields while simultaneously curbing greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions.This paper explores the determinants of smallholder farmers’participation in GHG-emitting activities.It also estimates the impact of CSA activities on reducing GHG emissions.Methods:The findings are based on survey data obtained from 350 smallholder farmers in the East Gonja district of Northern Ghana.We adopted the generalized Poisson regression model in identifying factors influencing farmers’participation in the GHG emission practices and inverse-probability-weighted regression adjustment(IPWRA)to estimate the impact of CSA adoption on GHG emissions.Results:Most farming households engaged in at least one emission activity.The findings of the generalized Poisson model found that wealthier households,higher education,and households with access to extension services were less likely to participate in GHG emission activities.There was also evidence that CSA adoption significantly reduces GHG emissions.Conclusion:Advocacy in CSA adoption could be a necessary condition for environmental protection through the reduction of GHG emissions.

Application of Community Climate Change Adaptation Assessment Tools for Climate Adaptation Planning in Yala Wetlands Complex, Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya

Yala Wetland is a complex of Nzoia and Yala rivers that drain their waters into Lake Victoria, but face various pressure which is thought to originate from the impacts of climate change. The riparian communities are generally poor and use the wetland resources for small-holder livelihood activities. This paper describes how community climate change adaptation assessment (C3A2) tools were applied to identify resilient community-level adaptation options and would inform local climate adaptation planning. Eight participatory C3A2 tools were applied for data collection in which two (adaptation attributes and story-telling) were administered at the meso or local government (County) level while all the eight tools (community protocol, risk mapping, techno-transect, resilience ranking, community calendars, story-telling, adaptation attributes and give back) were administered at the micro or community level. Qualitative research method was adopted and 80 respondents (20 at meso and 60 at micro) were purposively selected for the study. Data were collected through interviews, focus group discussions (FGD), and plenary discussions. Data were analyzed at four levels: pre-analysis in situ, daily team triangulation, team conclusions, and cross-community reporting. The study found that communities experienced climate risks that tended to shift along with prolonged and irregular hydro-meteorological events, which affected their capacities for adaptation especially the resource-constrained individuals and vulnerable households. Drought (45%) and flood hazards (39%) were the most felt strongly. Drought was manifested mainly by prolonged dry-spell, increased atmospheric temperatures, and strong winds while floods were characterized by unpredictable and short but high-intensity rainfall with associated loss of lives and property damage. Women, children, and poor households were the most exposed to climatic hazards. Farm/agro-forestry was the most perceived adaptation strategy for drought, flood, and soil erosion while alternative livelihoods particularly ecotourism was the commonly perceived adaptation strategy for human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Three community-based adaptation action plans (CBAP) were prepared to guide future village-level planning and development. The CBAPs were used to identify three sample projects which were funded by the donor and implemented by the community. The C3A2 approach provides adequate participatory tools that can be applied in the lake and river basins, and potentially other ecosystems to guide the development of community-based adaptation plans and resilient community-based adaptation projects with wider local acceptance especially those geared towards designing programs for climate-smart livelihoods. However, the application of the methodology may be site-specific and the tools can be administered based on local scenarios and the availability of resources.

Optimization of Irrigation Water Allocation Framework Based on Genetic Algorithm Approach

In a world where excessive use and degradation of water resources are threatening the sustainability of livelihoods dependent on water and agriculture, increased food production will have to be done in the face of a changing climate and climate variability. There is a need to make optimal use of the available water resource to maximize productivity. Climate-smart irrigation is aimed at increasing per unit production and income from irrigated cropping systems without having negative impacts on the environment or other water users and uses. This paper developed a water allocation model using Genetic Algorithm to equitably allocation available water to the various sectors in Kano River Irrigation Scheme yielding an optimal as well as equitable water release with a 96.44% demand met. An average relative supply of 0.94 was obtained indicating the there was even supply of water to all the sectors. The model is robust and relatively easy to apply and can be employed by farm managers to achieve equity and optimal use of the available water resource.

An Assessment of Barriers to MSMEs’ Adoption of CSA in Livestock Red Meat Value Chain, Kajiado County, Kenya

Climate change poses great risks to poverty alleviation, food security and livelihoods sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa, declining crop yields and livestock productivity, especially in ASALs that suffer from fragile ecosystems characterized by frequent droughts and low rainfall. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) objectives of improving productivity and incomes, adaptation, resilience to climate change and mitigation on GHGs emissions, are responses to these climate risks. CSA technologies, innovation and management practices (TIMPs) in general do exist, however they are concentrated in crop farming neglecting livestock production and especially in marginalized areas such as ASALs, which forms 85% of Kenyan land mass and is dominated by pastoral and nomadic livestock production. Most CSA practices are mainly at the production level and hardly extend to the entire value chain, and diffusion is slow due to several barriers. A mixed method approach was used to evaluate barriers to actors’ adoption of CSA in the pastoral Livestock red meat value chain starting from input suppliers, producers, to consumers (pasture to plate). This study used six broad perspectives to examine the barriers: 1) Knowledge and institutional;2) Market and financial;3) Policy and incentives;4) Networks and engagement platforms;5) Cultural and social;6) Physical infrastructure barriers. These barriers can be surmounted with concerted efforts from the government, development partners, pastoral communities, value chain actors and public private partnership among others. Efforts such as modernization of the pastoral red meat value chains, integration of MSMEs into the livestock systems, access to affordable financing, availability of context based, affordable CSA TIMPs, incentives, policies and institutional support, which currently remains inadequate. Institutional barriers like lack of capacity, coupled with knowledge and behavioral barriers hinder adoption. Financial institutions and cooperative societies can be enablers, however, their reluctance to invest in the sector is a barrier too.

Multi-scale processes influencing global carbon storage and land-carbon-climate nexus:A critical review

Carbon(C)is a key constitutive element in living organisms(plants,microbes,animals,and humans).Carbon is also a basic component of agriculture because it plays a dynamic role in crop growth,development,nutrient cycling,soil fertility,and other agricultural features.The presence of C enhances soil physical,chemical,and biological properties.The C cycle supports all life on the Earth by transferring C between living organisms and the environment.The global climate is changing,and this change is attributable to the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from human activities.Owing to the global climate change,agriculture is expected to be majorly affected.Agricultural production is directly linked to the climate.The five main global C pools are the oceanic,geologic,pedologic,atmospheric,and biotic pools,with specific reservoirs and inter-pool fluxes.The soil organic matter has various organic C pools(active,slow,and passive pools),containing various C-based fractions and specific liability pools.Climate,geology,land use,and management techniques are some of the variables that affect organic C and its reservoirs.The dynamics of each of these variables must be understood for a thorough knowledge of how they impact the soil C pools and storage capacity under the changing climate conditions.This review provides a comprehensive overview of the various factors that affect soil C pools/fractions and their C sequestration capacity.