The Application of Comparative Psychology to Parapsychology: A Recommendation

We propose that the comparative psychological principle of “levels” be used as a new research methodology to investigate psi in humans. Rather than investigate psi in animals, as is sometimes done, we propose to investigate psi in humans using animals as a receptor. Our approach is to start with simple organisms such as protozoans and progress to planarians and honey bees. The behavior of these organisms is well characterized and easily manipulated. Deviations from standard behavior patterns during an experiment on telekinesis can suggest psi effects. A major advantage of using invertebrates for psi research is that if a psi effect is found, the underlying mechanism of the effect can be analyzed using molecular and genetic tools. We provide suggestions on how telekinesis can be studied using this approach and suggest that Observation Oriented Modeling be used to analyze psi data.

Evaluation of Chimpanzee Language Experiments of R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner,Terrace,and Rumbaugh and Savage-Rumbaugh

Can we teach a chimpanzee a language?Different researchers have different opinions.R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner,Terrace,and Rumbaugh and Savage-Rumbaugh raised chimpanzees Washoe,NeamChimsky(Nim),and Lana respectively and tried to teach a language to them.R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner’s study is well designed by choosing and teaching Washoe America Sign Language(ASL).However,ASL is only used in a small number of people;therefore,even the chimp can master it,the result is not representative enough to include all major human languages.Also,using limitation as a training method is successful and a surprising result is obtained:Washoe was claimed to perform delayed imitation.One result claimed by R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner is that Washoe showed motive for communication,which is not convincing.However,other results of Washoe’s abilities of“vocabulary”,“differentiation”,and“transfer”seem convincing because they could be explained by its understanding that the sign can represent meanings.The methodology of Terrace’s study seems more rigorous.The aim of his study is to explore whether apes can create sentences by analysing Nim’s combinations of signs and their differences with that of children.The analysis of results of sign combinations is not convincing.However,what is convincing is that the results show huge differences between Nim’s and children’s utterances.In terms of methodology,the training methods in Rumbaugh’s study seem to have no big difference from R.A.Gardner and B.T.Gardner’s and Terrace’s.In terms of the results,Lana was claimed to perform communication with companions.Another result of the experiment is that Lana was claimed to master the ability to use names.

The face of animal cognition

As an increasing number of researchers investigate the cognitive abilities of an ever-wider range of animals,animal cognition is currently among the most exciting fields within animal behavior.Tinbergen would be proud:all four of his approaches are being pursued and we are learning much about how animals collect informa­tion and how they use that information to make decisions for their current and future states as well as what ani­mals do not perceive or choose to ignore.Here I provide an overview of this productivity,alighting only briefly on any single example,to showcase the diversity of species,of approaches and the sheer mass of research ef­fort currently under way.We are getting closer to understanding the minds of other animals and the evolution of cognition at an increasingly rapid rate.