Research progress in friction stir processing of magnesium alloys and their metal matrix surface composites: Evolution in the 21^(st )century

Rising concerns about climate change drive the demand for lightweight components.Magnesium(Mg)alloys are highly valued for their low weight,making them increasingly important in various industries.Researchers focusing on enhancing the characteristics of Mg alloys and developing their Metal Matrix Composites(MMCs)have gained significant attention worldwide over the past decade,driven by the global shift towards lightweight materials.Friction Stir Processing(FSP)has emerged as a promising technique to enhance the properties of Mg alloys and produce Mg-MMCs.Initially,FSP adapted to refine grain size from the micro to the nano level and accelerated the development of MMCs due to its solid-state nature and the synergistic effects of microstructure refinement and reinforcement,improving strength,hardness,ductility,wear resistance,corrosion resistance,and fatigue strength.However,producing defect-free and sound FSPed Mg and Mg-MMCs requires addressing several variables and their interdependencies,which opens up a broad range of practical applications.Despite existing reviews on individual FSP of Mg,its alloys,and MMCs,an attempt has been made to analyze the latest research on these three aspects collectively to enhance the understanding,application,and effectiveness of FSP for Mg and its derivatives.This review article discusses the literature,classifies the importance of Mg alloys,provides a historical background,and explores developments and potential applications of FSPed Mg alloys.It focuses on novel fabrication methods,reinforcement strategies,machine and tool design parameters,material characterization,and integration with other methods for enhanced properties.The influence of process parameters and the emergence of defects are examined,along with specific applications in mono and hybrid composites and their microstructure evolution.The study identifies promising reinforcement materials and highlights research gaps in FSP for Mg alloys and MMCs production.It concludes with significant recommendations for further exploration,reflecting ongoing advancements in this field.

Surface metal-matrix composites based on AZ91 magnesium alloy via friction stir processing:A review

This monograph presents an overview of friction stir processing(FSP)of surface metal-matrix composites(MMCs)using the AZ91 magnesium alloy.The reported results in relation to various reinforcing particles,including silicon carbide(SiC),alumina(Al_(2)O_(3)),quartz(SiO_(2)),boron carbide(B_(4)C),titanium carbide(TiC),carbon fiber,hydroxyapatite(HA),in-situ formed phases,and hybrid reinforcements are summarized.AZ91 composite fabricating methods based on FSP are explained,including groove filling(grooving),drilled hole filling,sandwich method,stir casting followed by FSP,and formation of in-situ particles.The effects of introducing second-phase particles and FSP process parameters(e.g.,tool rotation rate,traverse speed,and the number of passes)on the microstructural modification,grain refinement,homogeneity in the distribution of particles,inhibition of grain growth,mechanical properties,strength–ductility trade-off,wear/tribological behavior,and corrosion resistance are discussed.Finally,useful suggestions for future work are proposed,including focusing on the superplasticity and superplastic forming,metal additive manufacturing processes based on friction stir engineering(such as additive friction stir deposition),direct FSP,stationary shoulder FSP,correlation of the dynamic recrystallization(DRX)grain size with the Zener–Hollomon parameter similar to hot deformation studies,process parameters(such as the particle volume fraction and external cooling),and common reinforcing phases such as zirconia(ZrO_(2))and carbon nanotubes(CNTs).

Impressive strides in amelioration of corrosion behavior of Mg-based alloys through the PEO process combined with surface laser process: A review

The unsatisfactory corrosion properties of Mg-based alloys pose a significant obstacle to their widespread application. Plasma electrolytic oxidation(PEO) is a prevalent and effective coating method that produces a ceramic-like oxide coating on the surface of Mg-based alloys,enhancing their resistance to corrosion. Research has demonstrated that PEO treatment can substantially improve the corrosion performance of alloys based on magnesium in the short term. In an effort to enhance the corrosion resistance of PEO coatings over an extended period of time, researchers have turned their attention to the use of laser processes as both pre-and post-treatments in conjunction with the PEO process. Various laser processes, such as laser shock melting(LSM), laser shock adhesion(LSA), laser shock texturing(LST), and laser shock peening(LSP), have been investigated for their potential to improve PEO coatings on Mg substrates and their alloys. These laser melting processes can homogenize and alter the microstructure of Mg-based alloys while leaving the bulk material unchanged, thereby modifying the substrate surface. However, the porous and rough structure of PEO coatings, with their open and interconnected pore structure, can reduce their long-term corrosion resistance. As such, various laser processes are well-suited for surface modification of these coatings. This study will first examine the PEO process and the various types of laser processes used in this process, before investigating the corrosion behavior of PEO coatings in conjunction with laser pre-and post-treatment processes.

Magnesium based surface metal matrix composites by friction stir processing

Surface metal matrix composites(MMCs)are a group of modern engineered materials where the surface of the material is modified by dispersing secondary phase in the form of particles or fibers and the core of the material experience no change in chemical composition and structure.The potential applications of the surface MMCs can be found in automotive,aerospace,biomedical and power industries.Recently,friction stir processing(FSP)technique has been gaining wide popularity in producing surface composites in solid state itself.Magnesium and its alloys being difficult to process metals also have been successfully processed by FSP to fabricate surface MMCs.The aim of the present paper is to provide a comprehensive summary of state-of-the-art in fabricating magnesium based composites by FSP.Influence of the secondary phase particles and grain refinement resulted from FSP on the properties of these composites is also discussed.

Surface modification of magnesium alloys using thermal and solid-state cold spray processes:Challenges and latest progresses

Potential engineering applications of magnesium(Mg)and Mg-based alloys,as the lightest structural metal,have made them a popular subject of study.However,the inferior corrosion and wear characteristics significantly limit their application range.It is widely recognized that surface treatment is the most commonly utilized technique for remarkably improving a substrate’s surface characteristics.Numerous methods have been introduced for the surface treatment of Mg and Mg-based alloys to improve their corrosion behavior and tribological performance.Among these,thermal spray(TS)technology provides several methods for deposition of various functional metallic,ceramic,cermet,or other coatings tailored to particular conditions.Recent researches have shown the tremendous potential for thermal spray coated Mg alloys for biomedical and industrial applications.In this context,the cold spray(CS)method,as a comparatively new TS coating technique,can generate the coating layer using kinetic energy rather than combined thermal and kinetic energies,like the high-velocity oxy-fuel(HVOF)spray method.Moreover,the CS process,as a revolutionary method,is able to repair and refurbish with a faster turnaround time;it also provides solutions that do not require dealing with the thermal stresses that are part of the other repair processes,such as welding or other TS processes using a high-temperature flame.In this review paper,the recently designed coatings that are specifically applied to Mg alloys(primarily for industrial applications)employing various coating processes are reviewed.Because of the increased utilization of CS technology for both 3D printed(additively manufactured)coatings and repair of structurally critical components,the most recent CS methods for the surface treatment,repair,and refurbishment of Mg alloys as well as their benefits and restrictions are then discussed and reviewed in detail.Lastly,the prospects of this field of study are briefly discussed,along with a summary of the presented work.

Influence of volume percentage of NanoTiB2 particles on tribological&mechanical behaviour of 6061-T6 Al alloy nano-surface composite layer prepared via friction stir process

The aim of present study is to analyze the influence of volume percentage(vol.%) of nano-sized particles(TiB_2: average size is 35 nm) on microstructure, mechanical and tribological behavior of 6061-T6 Al alloy surface nano composite prepared via Friction stir process(FSP). The microstructure of the fabricated surface nanocomposites is examined using optical microscopy(OM) and scanning electron microscope(SEM) for distribution of TiB_2 nano reinforcement particles, thickness of nano composite layer formed on the Aluminum alloy substrate and fracture features. The depth of surface nano composite layer is measured as 3683.82 m m along the cross section of stir zone of nano composite perpendicular to FSP. It was observed that increase in volume percentage of TiB_2 particles, the microhardness is increased up to132 Hv and it is greater than as-received Al alloy's microhardness(104 Hv). It is also observed that at 4volume percentage higher tensile properties exhibited as compared with the 2 and 8 vol. %. It is found that high wear resistance exhibited at 4 volume percentage as-compared with the 2 and 8 vol. %. The observed wear and mechanical properties are interrelated with microstructure, fractography and worn morphology.

Friction Stir Processing of Thixoformed AZ91D Magnesium Alloy and Fabrication of Surface Composite Reinforced by SiC_ps

The microstructural evolution characteristics of the thermomechanically affected zone （TMAZ） alloy during friction stir processing （FSP） of thixoformed （TF） AZ91D alloy were investigated. Simultaneously, a surface composite layer reinforced by SiC particles （SiCps） was prepared on the alloy by FSP and the corresponding tribological properties were examined. The experimental results indicate that dynamic recrystallization and mechanical separation （including splitting and fracture of the primary grains） are the main mechanisms of grain refinement for the TMAZ. A composite surface reinforced by uniformly distributed SiCps was prepared on the alloy. Compared with the corresponding permanent mould casting alloy and the TF alloy without composite surface, the TF alloy with composite surface has the highest wear resistance and lowest friction coefficient.

Optimization of process parameters of aluminum alloy AA 2014-T6 friction stir welds by response surface methodology

The heat treatable aluminum-copper alloy AA2014 finds wide application in the aerospace and defence industry due to its high strength-toweight ratio and good ductility. Friction stir welding(FSW) process, an emerging solid state joining process, is suitable for joining this alloy compared to fusion welding processes. This work presents the formulation of a mathematical model with process parameters and tool geometry to predict the responses of friction stir welds of AA 2014-T6 aluminum alloy, viz yield strength, tensile strength and ductility. The most influential process parameters considered are spindle speed, welding speed, tilt angle and tool pin profile. A four-factor, five-level central composite design was used and a response surface methodology(RSM) was employed to develop the regression models to predict the responses.The mechanical properties, such as yield strength(YS), ultimate tensile strength(UTS) and percentage elongation(%El), are considered as responses. Method of analysis of variance was used to determine the important process parameters that affect the responses. Validation trials were carried out to validate these results. These results indicate that the friction stir welds of AA 2014-T6 aluminum alloy welded with hexagonal tool pin profile have the highest tensile strength and elongation, whereas the joints fabricated with conical tool pin profile have the lowest tensile strength and elongation.

Influence of processing parameters on coating surface roughness of aluminum alloy

The influence of processing parameters on the coating surface roughness of LD10 aluminum alloy treated by the power source with positive and negative pulse in the alkaline electrolyte was discussed.Lots of experiments were done with different processing parameters including the positive final voltage,the negative final voltage,the frequency,the duty ratio,the processing time and electrolyte temperature.And the surface roughness tester TR200 was used to measure the coating surface roughness.The influence of the processing time on the surface roughness is the smallest,less than 0.2μm.The surface roughness decreases gradually with the duty ratio decreasing or the frequency increasing;it decreases gradually with each of the other parameters increasing,and then increases gradually after achieving the minimum value.Appropriately by selecting processing parameters,the coating with Ra 0.6 can be obtained.

Microstructure and wear performance of Al5083/CeO_2/SiC mono and hybrid surface composites fabricated by friction stir processing

Friction stir processing（FSP） was utilized to produce surface composites by incorporating nano-sized cerium oxide（CeO2） and silicon carbide（SiC） particles individually and in combined form into the Al5083 alloy matrix. The study signified the role of these reinforcements on microstructure and wear behavior of the resultant surface composite layers. The wear characteristics of the resultant mono and hybrid surface composite layers were investigated using a pin-on-disc wear tester at room temperature. The microstructural observations of FSPed regions and the worn out surfaces were performed by optical and scanning electron microscopy. Considerable grain refinement and uniform distribution of reinforcement particles were achieved inside the nugget zone. All the composite samples showed higher hardness and wear resistance compared to the base metal. Among the composite samples, the hybrid composite（Al5083/CeO2/SiC） revealed the highest wear resistance and the lowest friction coefficient, whereas the Al5083/SiC composite exhibited the highest hardness, i.e., 1.5 times as hard as that of the Al5083 base metal. The enhancement in wear behavior of the hybrid composites was attributed to the solid lubrication effect provided by CeO2 particles. The predominant wear mechanism was identified as severe adhesive in non-composite samples, which changed to abrasive wear and delamination in the presence of reinforcing particles.

Friction stir processing of thixoformed AZ91D magnesium alloy and fabrication of Al-rich surface

The microstructural evolution characteristics of thermo-mechanically affected zone were investigated during friction stir processing (FSP) of the thixoformed AZ91D alloy. Simultaneously, an Al-rich surface layer was prepared by combination of Al powder using FSP method. The results indicate that the dynamic recrystallization and mechanical separation (including splitting and fracture of the primary grains) are the main mechanisms of grain refinement. For the thixoformed alloy, the operation efficiency of these mechanisms is less than that of the permanent mould casting AZ91D alloy, thus its microstructural evolution is relatively slow and the resulting grain size is relatively large. These are attributed to the differences in their original microstructures. The Al-rich surface layer can obviously improve the corrosion resistance in NaCl aqueous solution. A proper solution heat treatment (at 415 ℃ for 1 h) can further increase the corrosion resistance. In order to improve corrosion resistance, increasing the amount and improving the distribution uniformity of the Al-rich phase are more effective than increasing the Al solubility in the matrix.

Improvement of titanium alloy TA19 fatigue life by submerged abrasive waterjet peening:Correlation of its process parameters with surface integrity and fatigue performance

Submerged abrasive waterjet peening(SAWJP)is an effective anti-fatigue manufacturing technology that is widely used to strengthen aeroengine components.This study investigated the correlation of SAWJP process parameters on surface integrity and fatigue life of titanium alloy TA19.SAWJP with different water pressures and standoff distances(SoDs)was conducted on the TA19 specimens.The surface integrity of the specimens before and after SAWJP with different process parameters was experimentally studied,including microstructure,surface roughness,microhardness,and compressive residual stress(CRS).Finally,fatigue tests of the specimens before and after SAWJP treatment with different process parameters were carried out at room temperature.The results highlighted that the fatigue life of the TA19 specimen can be increased by 5.46,5.98,and 6.28 times under relatively optimal process parameters,which is mainly due to the improved surface integrity of the specimen after SAWJP treatment.However,the fatigue life of specimens treated with improper process parameters is decreased by 0.55 to 0.69 times owing to the terrible surface roughness caused by the material erosion.This work verifies that SAWJP can effectively improve the surface integrity and fatigue life of workpieces,and reveals the relationship between process parameters,surface integrity,and fatigue life,which provides support for the promotion of SAWJP in the manufacturing fields.

Surface Analysis of Chemical Stripping Titanium Alloy Oxide Films

The chemical stripping method of titanium alloy oxide films was studied. An environment friendly solution hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide without hydrofluoric acid or fluoride were used to strip the oxide films. The morphologies of the surface and cross-section of the oxide films before and after the films stripping were characterized by using scanning electron microscopy （SEM）. The microstructure and chemical compositions of the oxide films before and after the films stripping were investigated by using Raman spectroscopy （Raman） and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy （XPS）. It was shown that the thickness of the oxide film was in the range of 5-6 μm. The oxide films were stripped for 2 to 8 min in the solution. Moreover, the effect of the stripping time on the efficiency of the film stripping was investigated, and the optimum stripping time was between 6-8 min. When the stripping solution completely dissolved the whole film, the α/β microstructure of the titanium alloy Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al was partly revealed. The stripping mechanism was discussed in terms of the dissolution of film delamination. The hydrogen peroxide had a significant effect on the dissolution of the titanium alloy anodic oxide film. The feasibility of the dissolution reaction also was evaluated.

Developing Mg–Zn surface alloy by friction surface allosying: In vitro degradation studies in simulated body fluids

A new variant of friction-assisted process named friction surface alloying(FSA)for developing surface alloys was demonstrated in the present work.In FSA,the dispersed phase is melted and allowed to react with the matrix material to form an alloy at the surface of a metallic substrate.In the present work,magnesium(Mg)sheets and zinc(Zn)powder were selected,and fine grained(~3.5μm)Mg–Zn surface alloy with improved hardness was produced by FSA.X-ray diffraction studies confirmed the formation of intermetallic phases of Mg and Zn at the surface.From the in vitro degradation studies carried out by immersing in simulated body fluids,a lower corrosion rate was observed for the Mg–Zn surface alloy compared with pure Mg.The surface morphologies after immersion studies indicated large degraded areas on the base Mg compared with Mg–Zn.The results demonstrate the potential of FSA in developing Mg-based surface alloys without melting the substrate to impart better surface properties.

Effect of Al addition on corrosion behavior of high-purity Mg in terms of processing history

In this study,the effects of Al addition on the corrosion behavior of pure Mg with controlled impurity contents were systematically analyzed according to the processing history.The results revealed that the corrosion behavior of high-purity Mg-Al alloys is strongly related to changes in the microstructure,including theβphase and Al-Mn or Al-Fe phases,and the protectiveness of the surface film according to the Al content and processing history.In the as-cast alloys,the corrosion rate increased due to the increase ofβphase as the Al content increased,but in the as-extruded alloys,the corrosion rate,which was high due to intermetallic compounds caused by impurities in the low Al alloy,decreased as the Al content increased,and then increased again.This is due to the combined effect of the increase of theβphase and decrease of the impurity effect,and the increase of the dissolved Al content.The results suggest that it is necessary to analyze the effect of alloying elements on the corrosion behavior of pure Mg with information concerning the impurity content and processing history.

Instantly Investigating the Adsorption of Polymeric Corrosion Inhibitors on Magnesium Alloys by Surface Analysis under Ambient Conditions

Surface engineering of magnesium alloys requires adequate strategies, processes and materials permitting corrosion protection. Liquid formulations containing corrosion inhibitors often are to be optimized according to the demands of the respective substrate and following the service conditions during its application. As an interdisciplinary approach, a combination of several techniques for instantly monitoring or elaborately analyzing the surface state of magnesium was accomplished in order to characterize the performance of new adsorbing sustainable amphiphilic polymers which recently were developed to facilitate a multi-metal corrosion protection approach. The application of established techniques like Contact Angle measurements and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy investigations was supplemented by introducing related and yet faster online-capable and larger-scale techniques like Aerosol Wetting Test and Optically Stimulated Electron Emission. Moreover, an inexpensive setup was configured for scaling the inset and the extent of degradation processes which occur at local electrochemical circuits and lead to hydrogen bubble formation. Using these analytical tools, changes of the surface state of emeried AM50 samples were investigated. Even in contact with water, being a moderate corrosive medium, the online techniques facilitated detecting surface degradation of the unprotected magnesium alloy within some seconds. In contrast, following contact with a 1 weight% formulation of a polymeric corrosion inhibitor, surface monitoring indicated a delay of the onset of degradation processes by approximately two orders of magnitude in time. Mainly based on the spectroscopic investigations, the corrosion inhibiting effects of the investigated polymer are attributed to the adsorption of a primary polymer layer with a thickness of a few nanometers which occurs within some seconds. Immersion of magnesium for several hours brings up a protective film with around ten nanometers thickness.

基于响应面法的铝合金角接激光焊工艺优化

文章选用板材厚度为2 mm的5754铝合金,采用角接的搭接形式,开展激光熔焊焊接试验。以激光功率P、焊接速度v、离焦量Z为试验参数,以焊接接头的最大拉力F为响应指标,建立响应面分析的数学模型。研究结果表明:激光功率、焊接速度、离焦量对最大拉力均有明显影响。激光功率越大、焊接速度和离焦量越小,最大拉力越大。分析所建立的数学模型,确定较优工艺区间,结合焊缝成形的宏观形貌,获取最优工艺参数组合。最大拉力相比于试验组中的最优组提升5.55%。

3D打印镍基合金GH3536化学机械抛光机理研究

目的实现无瑕疵的3D打印镍基合金GH3536超光滑镜面,揭示镍基合金GH3536在不同成分溶液下的化学机械抛光(Chemical Mechanical Polishing,CMP)去除机理。方法采用单因素实验法通过CMP对镍基合金GH3536展开研究。采用电化学测试技术和X射线光电子能谱(X-rayPhotoelectron Spectroscopy,XPS)分析3D打印镍基合金GH3536在不同p H值、不同氧化剂浓度和不同抛光液类型下的溶解与钝化行为。结果当pH值为3~3.5、H_(2)O_(2)质量分数为10%时,可获得最优的材料去除率(MRR为20.24 nm/min)和表面粗糙度(Surface Roughness,其中Ra为0.684 nm,S_(a)为1.699 nm),CMP抛光面可达到超光滑低损伤的镜面效果。根据电化学和XPS测量结果,建立了化学反应方程,确定了去除机理,具体为:在化学机械抛光过程中,镍基合金GH3536表面首先被H_(2)O_(2)氧化成Ni、Fe等氧化物;其次,在酸性H^(+)作用下,氧化物转化为Ni^(2+)、Ni^(3+)和Fe^(3+)等多价离子;最后,多价离子会与柠檬酸发生络合反应生成较软的柠檬酸盐络合物,在CMP抛光中发生去除。结论与传统电化学加工相比,采用CMP加工的3D打印镍基合金GH3536的表面粗糙度更低,表面形貌更好,可用于对面型精度要求较高的镍基合金的超精密加工。基于电化学测试技术和XPS深度剖析的方法有效揭示了镍基合金GH3536的材料去除机理,获得了不同p H值、氧化剂浓度和不同抛光液种类对材料去除机理的影响规律。为获得新型高质量表面的3D打印合金材料提供指导意义。

56NiCrMoV7钢激光熔覆Ni60合金涂层的质量预测与性能分析

基于响应面法开展56NiCrMoV7钢表面激光熔覆Ni60合金粉末的理论及实验研究。以激光功率、扫描速度、送粉速率和搭接率为影响因素,以涂层表面平整度、稀释率及显微硬度为响应目标建立多元回归预测模型,进行工艺参数优化和涂层质量预测。结果表明:送粉速率和扫描速度的交互作用对表面平整度影响最大;激光功率、送粉速率及搭接率对稀释率均有显著影响;送粉速率对显微硬度影响最大,激光功率次之。优化的工艺参数为激光功率1647 W,送粉速率0.5 rad/min,扫描速度5 mm/s,搭接率0.4,所制备Ni60合金涂层的表面平整度、稀释率和显微硬度预测值与实验值一致性较好。Ni60合金涂层与56NiCrMoV7基体之间为冶金结合,涂层的硬度和耐磨性均优于基体,表面强化效果明显。

开放环境下钛合金激光熔覆的表面色差模型研究

目的选择合适的工艺参数范围,在开放环境下获得性能良好的钛合金激光熔覆层。方法以氧含量衡量熔覆层的氧化程度,研究不同表面色差值下的氧含量的变化规律。以激光功率、扫描速度、送粉速率和气体流量为控制变量,利用分光测色仪检测熔覆层表面色差并以之来量化熔覆层表面颜色,以表面色差作为响应指标,基于响应面法建立熔覆层表面色差与熔覆工艺参数之间的数学模型。结果随着色差值的增加,熔覆层中的氧含量增加。激光功率对色差的影响要大于扫描速度,激光功率越大,色差值越大;低激光功率和高送粉速率可获得较小的色差值;扫描速度和送粉速率的交互作用对色差的影响较小;气体流量的变化对色差的影响较为显著,为了获得较小的色差,可增大气体流量。根据表面色差模型,当激光功率为950~1090W,扫描速度为5~7mm/s,送粉速率为1.15~1.65g/min,气体流量为24~32L/min进行工艺参数组合时,可获得满足熔覆条件的表面色差值。结论可用色差来表征熔覆层表面颜色,极限表面色差值为5.09,并得到了合适的激光熔覆工艺窗口。通过试验验证了模型所得预测值与实测值相吻合,证明了本文研究方法的有效性。