Bending,Compression and Bonding Performance of Cross-Laminated Timber(CLT)Made from Malaysian Fast-Growing Timbers

This study investigated the bending,compression as well as the bonding performance of CLT panels made from fast-growing timber species,i.e.,Laran(Neolamarckia cadamba)and Batai(Paraserianthes falcataria).The variables studied were timber species(Laran and Batai),layers of lamination(3-layer and 5-layer),loading direction in bending(in-plane and out-of-plane),loading direction in compression(x-,y-,and z-axis)and different treatment conditions for bonding performance test.The desired outputs of this study were bending and compression properties(strength and stiffness)as well as bonding performance(block shear strength,wood failure percentage and delamination value).The bending and compression test were conducted according to EN16351:2015 and EN408:2012,respectively.On the other hand,the bonding performance test was determined by block shear and delamination test based on EN16351:2015 and EN14374:2004,respectively.Prior to block shear test,the samples were subjected to three different treatment conditions.The results showed that CLT made from 3-layer Laran timber,loaded at out-of-plane direction exhibited the highest bending properties.Contrarily,CLT made from 5-layered Batai timber,loaded at in-plane direction showed the lowest bending properties.Laran samples for compression loaded at x-axis exhibited the best compressive properties.Generally,Laran CLT showed greater bonding performance determined by shear test compared to Batai CLT for both 3-and 5-layer panels.On the contrary,delamination results showed that Batai CLT demonstrated better bonding performance compared to Laran CLT.In terms of bonding performance measured by wood failure percentage(WFP),most samples under various treatment conditions showed WFP≥80%except for samples under wet condition with WFP≤60%.

Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Cross-Laminated Timber with Different Lay-ups Using Japanese Larch

Japanese larch is one of the main plantation tree species in China.A lack of engineered wood products made by Japanese larch,however,limits its application in wood stnuctures.In this study,based on optimum process parameters,such as pressure(12 MPa),adhesive spread rate(200 g/m^(2))and adhesive(one-component polyurethane),the mechanical properties of Japanese larch-made cross-laminated timber(CLT)with different lay-ups were evaluated by means of the static method.Results of this study showed that variations in lay-ups significantly affected the mechanical properties of CLT.The strength and modulus of bending and parallel compression for CLT increased with the thickness of lumber,while that of bending,parallel compression and rolling shear all decreased with the number of layers.Thickness,layup orientation and the number of layers all had an impact on the strength of CLT.Failure modes obtained from numerical simulation were basically the same as those of experimental tests.There was also strong alignment between theoretical value and test value for effective bending stifness and shear stifness.Thus,the shear analogy method can be used to predict the mechanical properties of CLT effectively.This study proved great potential in using Japanese larch wood for manufacturing CLT due to its good mechanical properties.

Comparative Study on Various Strength Parameters of Structural Elements Made from Cross-Laminated Timber

Cross laminated timber(CLT)is an innovative and environment friendly engineered timber product with superior structural performance.CLT offers strong resistance against both in-plane and out-of-plane loading.Hence,it is widely used as floors,roofs or wall elements.Considerable experimental research on CLT under various loading conditions has been done in the recent past.This article presents a comprehensive review of various design methods to determine basic mechanical properties such as tension,compression and rolling shear strength of CLT with primary focus on Norway spruce.All relevant experimental data available from existing literature were collated and consequently been used to evaluate the performance of various methods to design CLT structures.The comparison revealed that different methods show considerable variance in predicting the capacity of CLT panels due to the variation in timber species,which affects the corresponding mechanical properties of the lamella.In addition to species,rolling shear properties can also vary considerably depending on the type of experimental technique used for testing.A predictive model has also been proposed to correlate rolling shear strength obtained from shear analogy method to that obtained using planar shear.

Understanding the Impacts of Plant Capacities and Uncertainties on the Techno- Economic Analysis of Cross-Laminated Timber Production in the Southern U.S.

Understanding the economic feasibility of cross-laminated timber(CLT),an emerging and sustainable alternative to concrete and steel,is critical for the rapid expansion of the mass timber industry.However,previous studies on economic performance of CLT have not fully considered the variations in the feedstock,plant capacities,manu-facturing parameters,and capital and operating costs.This study fills this gap by developing a techno-economic analysis of producing CLT panels in the Southern United States.The effects of those variations on minimum sell-ing price(MSP)of CLT panels are explored by Monte Carlo simulation.The results show that,across all the plant capacities from 30,000 to 150,000 m^(3)/year,the MSP ranges from$345 to$609/m^(3) with a±6%–9%range caused by the variations in feedstocks,key manufacturing parameters,capital and operating cost.The MSP decreases sig-nificantly along the increasing capacities.A sensitivity analysis exhibits that the lumber price,lumber preparing loss,plant capacity,and the installed costs of layering and gluing,finishing,and miscellaneous,are the top driving factors to CLT MSP.Supported by Geographic Information System,this study also studies the transportation cost of delivering CLT to customers under three CLT demanding levels(1%,5%,15%).The results show that the trans-portation cost is 1%–8%of the MSP.Lower demanding level or higher plant capacity can increase the transporta-tion cost due to average longer delivering distance.When considering the delivered cost that sums MSP and transportation cost,larger plant capacity does not necessarily generate lower delivered cost.

Evaluation of the Out-of-Plane Shear Properties of Cross-Laminated Timber

The out-of-plane shear properties of cross-laminated timber(CLT)substantially influence the overall mechanical properties of CLT.Various testing methods and theories related to these properties have recently been developed.The effects of the number of layers(three and five layers)and testing method(short-span three-and four-point bending tests)on the out-of-plane shear properties of CLT were evaluated.The out-of-plane shear strength values were calculated based on different theories for comparison.The failure mode in the short-span four-point bending(FPB)method was mainly the rolling shear(RS)failure in the cross layers,indicating that the FPB method was appropriate to evaluate the RS strength of CLT.The out-of-plane shear capacity obtained using the three-point bending(TPB)method was higher than that tested by the FPB method.The testing methods significantly influenced the out-of-plane shear capacity of the three-layer specimens but not that of the five-layer specimens.With an increase in the number of layers,the out-of-plane shear strength of the specimens decreased by 24%.A linear correlation was found among the shear strength values obtained from different theories.

Mechanical Experimental Study on Tensile Bolted Connections of Cross-laminated Timber

In order to explore a kind of high-strength,earthquake-resistant,eco-nomical and suitable connection,4 groups of cross-laminated timber wall-to-floor and wall-to-wall bolted connections were tested under monotonic and cyclic load-ing.The defommation characteristics and failure modes of the cross-laminated tim-ber wall-to-floor and wall-to-wall bolted connections were exploited.Load-slip curves,bearing capacity,yielding point,stiffness and ductility of each group of specimens were analyzed.The test results indicate that the loading process of cross-laminated timber bolted connections under tension can be categorized as five stages,namely the elastic stage,the slip stage,the embedding stage,the yield-ing stage and the ultimate stage.The ultimate tensile capacity of cross-laminated timber bolted wall-to-floor connections is 2.67 times that of the wall-to-wall bolted connections.Compared with cross-laminated timber self-tapping screwed connections,the ultimate tensile capacity of the cross-laminated timber wall-to-floor bolted connections is 2.70 times that of the self-tapping screwed connec-tions,and the ultimate tensile capacity of the cross-laminated timber wall-to-wall bolted connections is 3.83 times that of the self-tapping screwed connections.The crosslaminated timber bolted connections have larger yielding displacement and wider plastic range,and they are more energy dissipative and more ductile.Furthermore,the cost of the cross-laminated timber wall-to-floor bolted connec-tions is 46%that of the self-tapping screwed connections,while the cost of cross-laminated wall-to-wall bolted connections is 53%that of the self-screwed connections.

Analysis of Crack Expansion and Morphology of Cross-Laminated Timber Planar Shear Test

To describe the dynamic cracking process of the CLT vertical layer,the correlation between a load-displacement curve,specimen cracking,and planar shear failure mechanism of the CLT were explored.A three-point bending test and an improved planar shear test are used to evaluate the shear performance of the CLT.In this study,the load-displacement curve is recorded,the experimental part is synchronized with the video,the dynamic process of cracking of the vertical layer is observed and analyzed throughout the test.From the load-displacement curve,the image characteristics of the initial cracking and the sudden increase of the cracking of the specimen are summar-ized.The description results of the whole dynamic process of the CLT vertical layer cracking are analyzed by pla-nar shear strength value,cracking phenomenon,and azimuth angle of cracking surface.The main conclusions show that the three-point bending test and the improved plain shear test can be used to test the plain shear strength of the CLT,with a difference of only 5.7%.The original crack and the new crack expansion account for 18.9%and 81.1%of the main cracking surface,respectively.And the vertical layer of the CLT specimen under three-point bending has three cracking morphologies,such as radial shake,ring shake,neither along with the radial shake nor along with the ring shake.The azimuth angle of the cracking surface of the CLT vertical layer under planar shear is quite consistent with the first main plane azimuth of the vertical layer of the CLT specimens under the three-point bending test and the shearing test.The shape in the cracking direction of the left half-span or the right half-span of the vertical layer of the specimen is similar to the Chinese character eight.

DEVELOPING A PREFABRICATED LOW-CARBON CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM USING CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER (CLT) PANELS FOR MULTISTOREY INNER-CITY INFILL HOUSING IN AUSTRALIA

Prefabricated engineered solid wood panel construction systems can sequester and store CO_(2).Modular cross-laminated timber(CLT,also called cross-lam)panels form the basis of low-carbon,engineered construction systems using solid wood panels that can be used to build residential infill developments of 10 storeys or higher.Multi-apartment buildings of 4 to 10 storeys constructed entirely in timber,such as recently in Europe,are innovative,but their social and cultural acceptance in Australia and North America is at this stage still uncertain.Commercial utilisation is only possible if there is a demand and user acceptance.This paper explores the opportunities offered by an innovative low carbon construction system using cross-laminated timber(CLT)panels to improve the design and delivery of urban infill housing.CLT construction has been developed around 1996 in Austria:layers of timber boards are glued crosswise in different directions to increase loadbearing capacity.The paper describes a multi-disciplinary research project into cross-laminated timber panels which aims to transform the Australian construction and development industry,involving a range of key partners.This project will introduce cross-laminated timber panels as a way to build with a lightweight prefabricated low-carbon construction system that is advantageous for urban infill and residential buildings in the range of 4 to 8 stories height.The challenges,research questions and advantages of this new engineered timber system are explained,and a detailed research methodology for further research is presented.

近零能耗建筑设计实践——以CLT木结构建筑为例

基于近零能耗建筑设计理念,本研究采用正交胶合木(CLT)作为主要建筑材料,完成了一项创新性的建筑设计实践,全面展示了CLT在近零能耗建筑上的应用成果,为近零能耗建筑的研究和实践提供了实际案例,并对绿色低碳建筑领域中CLT的应用进行了有意义的探索。

CLT楼板耐火极限计算中零强度层厚度取值研究

为研究正交胶合木(CLT)楼板耐火极限计算中的零强度层厚度取值,分别进行了三层、五层CLT楼板常温极限承载力试验和耐火极限试验,并基于国内外木结构设计规范,结合忽略横纹层层板的弹性模量、仅考虑其厚度对组合截面惯性矩贡献的简化计算方法与剩余截面法,得到了一种适用于CLT楼板高温下零强度层厚度取值的计算方法,分析了CLT楼板零强度层厚度随炭化深度的变化规律,比较了CLT楼板高温下抗弯承载力在文中零强度层厚度取值下的结果和欧洲规范EN1995-1-2中的结果.研究结果表明:文中计算方法下的计算值与试验值吻合较好.当CLT楼板的炭化层到达横、顺纹层胶缝处时,零强度层厚度变化连续;而当炭化深度到达顺、横纹层的胶缝处时,零强度层厚度发生急剧突变.本文计算方法得到的高温下CLT楼板抗弯承载力相较于欧洲规范EN1995-1-2更合理,对于工程中的CLT楼板抗火设计具有更好的参考价值.

CLT建筑发展现状及前景

Cross-Laminated Timber(CLT)建筑是近年来盛行于欧美国家的新型重木结构建筑,简要介绍了CLT的优势与国内外发展现状,提出了CLT技术在中国未来发展有待解决的问题并对美好前景进行了展望。

CLT楼板半层搭接节点的面外弯曲性能试验研究

为研究半层搭接节点对正交胶合木(CLT)楼板双向抗弯承载力的影响,分别对CLT楼板半层搭接节点试件沿强轴和弱轴方向进行面外加载弯曲试验.归纳了强轴和弱轴方向受弯的试验现象和极限状态的破坏模式,考察了螺钉直径、螺钉间距、搭接长度对抗弯极限荷载、跨中截面应变的影响.结合试验现象,总结了弱轴方向受弯极限状态时自攻螺钉的变形特征.提出了半层搭接节点弱轴方向抗弯承载力的计算方法,将其计算结果与抗弯极限荷载试验值作对比.研究结果表明:强轴方向受弯试件的破坏模式是混合模式(销槽承压破坏,以及木层板的受拉破坏或滚剪破坏);弱轴方向受弯试件的搭接上部有两种破坏模式,包括模式Ⅰ(销槽承压破坏和钉帽拉穿破坏)、模式Ⅱ(搭接上部半层层板顺纹劈裂和钉帽拉穿破坏).增大螺钉直径、减小螺钉间距对强轴方向抗弯承载力无显著影响,增加搭接长度、减小螺钉间距能够显著提高弱轴方向抗弯承载力.提出的计算方法能够合理地预测半层搭接节点弱轴方向抗弯极限荷载,可为推广CLT双向楼板的应用提供理论研究基础和结构设计参考.

阔叶材CLT的研究进展

交叉层积材(Cross-Laminated Timber,CLT)作为一种新型的工程木制品,于20世纪90年代初在欧洲开发。CLT是由相邻层锯材垂直正交组坯形成的多层结构型工程木质复合材料。CLT材料具有施工速度快、施工方便、抗震性能好、固碳性能好、生态环保等优点。传统的CLT几乎完全由针叶材制成,包括樟子松、挪威云杉、白杉、欧洲落叶松和花旗松等。随着一些地区森林的构成发生变化,以及希望低价值阔叶材实现高附加值的应用,人们正越来越关注使用阔叶材来制造CLT。本文通过回顾阔叶材CLT的相关文献,探讨了制造阔叶材CLT的技术可行性,以期对我国阔叶材CLT的研究和应用提供一些借鉴和参考。

国内外新一代重型CLT木结构建筑技术研究进展

正交胶合木(CLT)是新型的工程木制品,是新一代重型装配式木结构建筑体系的基本单元和预制构件,目前备受国内外关注。为推动中国建筑形式的多元化和CLT装配式建筑的发展,文中分析了CLT建筑预制构件的独特优势,重点介绍了欧美发达国家在CLT材料工艺与性能、CLT构件的结构设计、CLT建筑的结构设计、CLT节点连接技术等方面的最新研究进展及其成果。在收获其启示和借鉴作用的基础上。通过学习国外新一代重型CLT木结构建筑的技术成果和成功经验,提出了加强高校教育与人才培养工作,造就一大批木结构建筑专业人才;行业部门要加快CLT的结构、材料、制造、安装等专业标准的制订与贯标工作;产学研有效合作;企业要重视信息化、标准化和集成化体系工作,强化人才团队建设;加大有效的宣传力度;高度重视建筑安全与耐久技术的攻关,尤其强化结构形式、结构用材、节点连接、耐久性和结构健康监测技术工作;充分利用当地木材和竹材资源来生产重型竹木复合预制板(或竹木复合CLT)等八条符合我国国情的发展CLT装配式木结构建筑的主要措施,以期提升我国CLT预制构件及重型木结构建筑体系的基础研究和应用水平,促进中国木结构建筑事业健康、快速地发展。

CLT结构建筑体系与建筑技术研究进展

正交胶合木(CLT)作为推动现代木结构建筑向多高层发展的新型工程木产品,近年来的相关研究日益增多,CLT结构建筑因其环境友好性等优势,在当前倡导生态文明、绿色建筑的背景下方兴未艾。对CLT结构建筑体系的组成、形式、体系类型和抗侧性能、节点连接进行总结,梳理了相关研究成果。结合我国国情,提出了研究方向和发展建议,以期促进我国CLT市场的蓬勃发展。

交错层压木材(CLT)在建筑上的应用研究

该文首先论述了当前时代背景下要求我们发展新型木材加工技术的迫切需要,之后通过对当前几种新型木材加工技术的优劣势进行比较,其中的交错层压木材(Cross-laminated Timber,CLT)木材加工技术在使木材的力学性能得到明显提升的同时,又提高了木材的利用效率,是木材改性的优选方案。随后对国内外CLT技术研究情况进行了介绍,并对优秀案例进行分析,最后展望交错层压木材(CLT)技术在中国未来木结构建筑发展中的美好前景。

不同胶黏剂对南方松CLT胶合性能的影响

为探索不同胶黏剂用于正交胶合木(CLT)生产的可能性,研究采用来自不同厂家的5种胶黏剂制备南方松CLT,以浸渍剥离率、剪切强度和木破率评价南方松CLT的胶合性能。结果表明:仅A-API和B-PUR1胶黏剂制造的南方松CLT胶层耐久性达到标准要求,木破率均未达到标准要求;5种胶黏剂对南方松CLT的浸渍剥离率、剪切强度和木破率有显著影响(P<0.005);从胶层耐久性、剪切性能和生产成本考虑,宜用A-PUR和A-API制造南方松CLT。

正交胶合木(CLT)梁剪应力分析及其层间剪切强度测试

【目的】探索正交胶合木(CLT)矩形截面梁剪应力计算公式,为测试CLT梁层间剪切强度提供理论依据。【方法】根据胡克定律及梁的弯矩与剪力的微分关系,计算3层、5层和7层CLT梁及同向胶合木梁的层间剪应力,给出CLT梁剪应力计算公式,比较CLT梁及同向胶合木梁的剪应力分布特征。【结果】CLT梁层间正应力间断,但层间剪应力是连续的;对于CLT矩形截面梁,其剪应力沿截面高度变化趋于均衡,不再遵循抛物线分布; CLT短跨距梁在三点弯曲加载中,依次发生垂直层滚动剪切破坏、层间剪切破坏和平行层弯曲破坏;短跨距梁三点弯曲载荷-位移曲线的最高峰值载荷为CLT发生层间剪切破坏载荷,其值稳定、易于读取;铁杉CLT梁层间剪切强度与其平行层弹性模量呈正相关。【结论】CLT梁层间剪应力和最大剪应力与CLT层数、平行层与垂直层弹性模量比值E_L/E_T(或E_L/E_R)有关; 3层、5层和7层CLT矩形截面梁的最大剪应力均发生在梁截面中性轴上,其值分别为1.5倍截面平均剪应力的92.8%、86.7%和92.6%;短跨距梁三点弯曲法是一种有效测试CLT层间剪切强度的方法。

Frequencies Prediction of Laminated Timber Plates Using ANN Approach

Cross laminated timber(CLT)panels,which are used as load bearing plates and shear panels in timber structures,can serve as roofs,walls and floors.Since timber is construction material with relatively less stiffness,the design of such structures is often driven by serviceability criteria,such as deflection and vibration.Therefore,accurate vibration and elastic properties are vital for engineered CLT products.The objective of this research is to explore a method to determine the natural frequencies of orthotropic wood plates efficiently and fast.The method was developed based on vibration signal processing by wavelet to acquire the effective sample data,and a model developed by artificial neural network(ANN)to achieve the prediction of nature frequencies.First,experiments were performed to obtain vibration signals of single-layer plates.The vibration signals were then processed by wavelet packet transform to extract the eigenvectors,which served as the samples to train the ANN model.The trained model was employed to predict three nature frequencies of other test specimens.The results showed that the proposed method can produce predicted frequencies fast and efficiently within 10%of the measured values.

负弯矩作用下钢-CLT组合梁-钢柱组合节点转动性能有限元模拟

钢-CLT组合梁-钢柱(SCLTC)组合节点是钢框架-CLT楼板组合结构中的关键部件。基于ABAQUS对负弯矩作用下SCLTC组合节点的转动性能进行模拟研究并进行参数化分析。结果表明:CLT板的宽度、厚度及楼板拼接构造对SCLTC组合节点转动性能影响较大。此外,对敏感参数进行了数值拟合,借鉴已有组合节点弯矩-转角三参数模型,拟合得到SCLTC组合节点的弯矩-转角模型参数的特征值,并建议性地确定了弯矩-转角模型形状系数。本研究将为后期钢框架-CLT楼板组合结构体系的试验和应用提供理论指导。