A 3D basin modeling study of the factors controlling gas hydrate accumulation in the Shenhu Area of the South China Sea

Great advancement has been made on natural gas hydrates exploration and test production in the northern South China Sea.However,there remains a lot of key questions yet to be resolved,particularly about the mechanisms and the controls of gas hydrates enrichment.Numerical simulaution would play signficant role in addressing these questions.This study focused on the gas hydrate exploration in the Shenhu Area,Northern South China Sea.Based on the newly obtained borehole and multichannel reflection seismic data,the authors conducted an integrated 3D basin modeling study on gas hydrate.The results indicate that the Shenhu Area has favorable conditions for gas hydrate accumulation,such as temperature,pressure,hydrocarbon source,and tectonic setting.Gas hydrates are most concentrated in the Late Miocene strata,particularly in the structual highs between the Baiyun Sag and the Liwan Sag,and area to the south of it.It also proved the existence of overpressure in the main sag of source rocks,which was subject to compaction disequilibrium and hydrocarbon generation.It also shown that the regional fault activity is not conducive to gas hydrate accumulation due to excess gas seepage.The authors conjecture that fault activity may slightly weaken overpressure for the positive effect of hydrocarbon expulsion and areas lacking regional fault activity have better potential.

Source Rock Evaluation and 1-D Basin Modelling Approach for the Sargelu Formation, Atrush-2 Well, Kurdistan Region-Iraq

The present study focuses on source rock evaluation of the Sargelu Formation by using core chips of rocks collected from well Atrush-2, Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq. The Rock-Eval pyrolysis and vitrinite reflectance were executed. Subsequently, the selected parameters were used for source rock evaluation and 1-D Basin Modelling calibration. The upper part of the formation mainly comprises argillaceous limestone with low content of organic matter (0.64% - 1% TOC). By contrast, the lower part is dominated with shale interval and contains high amounts of TOC values (>4% for 1272 - 1278 m) reveling good to very good quality source rock. Accordingly, good to very good hydrocarbon generation potential is suggested for this formation. Organic matter of the Sargelu Formation contains type II and mixed-type II-III kerogen. The values of Tmax and vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) demonstrate that the formation is thermally mature and in the oil zone. In order to construct a thermal history of the formation and determine the timing of hydrocarbon maturation and generation, the 1-D basin modelling PetroMod 2019.1 was used in this study. Based on the 1-D Basin modelling simulation and its outputs, about 3500 m of overburden have been eroded at the study area. The present-day heat flow was found to be 30 mW/m2. The organic matter of Sargelu Formation entered the early oil zone in 64 Ma and reached the main oil zone ca. 5 Ma. The formation is still in the main oil zone at present-day. In well Atrush-2, the highest rate of oil generation for the Sargelu Formation was in the 8.5 Ma, the onset of oil expulsion from Sargelu Formation was in 50 Ma and the expulsion mass has been reached 0.5 Mtons at present-day.

Tectonic characteristics and structural styles of a continental rifted basin:Revelation from deep seismic reflection profiles

The Fushan Depression is a half-graben rifted sub-basin located in the southeast of the Beibuwan Basin, South China Sea. The Paleogene Liushagang sequence is the main hydrocarbon-bearing stratigraphic unit in the sub-basin. Using three-dimensional（3-D）seismic data and logging data over the sub-basin, we analyzed structural styles and sedimentary characteristics of the Liushagang sequence. Five types of structural styles were defined： ancient horst, traditional slope, flexure slope-break, faulted slope-break and multiple-stage faults slope, and interpretations for positions, background and development formations of each structural style were discussed. Structural framework across the sub-basin reveals that the most remarkable tectonic setting is represented by the central transfer zone（CTZ） which divides the sub-basin into two independent depressions, and two kinds of sequence architectures are summarized：（i） the western multi-stage faults slope;（ii） the eastern flexure slope break belt. Combined with regional stress field of the Fushan Depression, we got plane combinations of the faults, and finally built up plan distribution maps of structural system for main sequence. Also, we discussed the controlling factors mainly focused on subsidence history and background tectonic activities such as volcanic activity and earthquakes. The analysis of structural styles and tectonic evolution provides strong theoretical support for future prospecting in the Fushan subbasin and other similar rifted basins of the Beibuwan Basin in South China Sea.

桂东北D/C界线沉积特征及对台盆相间演化的启示

台盆相间是桂东北泥盆纪和石炭纪沉积的重要特色,而D/C界线又是台盆相间沉积最突出的一个时段之一。文章回顾并评述了桂东北D/C界线的研究历程、相序划分、主要代表剖面,认为桂东北D/C界线可划分为碎屑岩相序和碳酸盐岩相序以及它们的过渡类型。通过对20条典型剖面的岩性组合特征对比,恢复了桂东北D/C界线海平面相对下降期的岩相古地理,结果显示桂东北在该时期主要存在柳州、桂林两大台地以及多个小型台地,台地间普遍发育快速相变的台沟、盆地沉积,石炭纪初期海水变浅,台地分布范围显著扩大,江南古陆供给增强,台盆相间格局迅速发展。为了进一步探讨桂东北D/C界线的演化过程和背后的控制因素,文章分析了广西整体的台盆相间演化的阶段性、同沉积构造作用以及海平面变化的影响,梳理了台盆相间演化过程中沉积环境分异与构造运动-海平面的关系,认为在滇黔桂裂谷盆地在持续断陷发展的前提下,桂东北D/C界线沉积分异的主要原因可能是受冈瓦纳大陆冰川形成与消融导致的海平面异常波动,以及柳江运动引发的局部同沉积断陷强度差异变动影响,且构造和沉积要素在D/C界线的耦合作用达到最强,最终促进桂东北台盆相间格局在D/C界线达到鼎盛。在此模式下,可以将台盆相间的演化划分为4个阶段,早泥盆世中期—晚期为台盆相间格局的孕育期,早泥盆世晚期—中泥盆世晚期沉积开始分异,为台盆相间格局的发展期,晩泥盆世—早石炭世台-盆出现强烈分割,海平面异常下降和柳江运动同时作用于沉积,为台盆相间格局的鼎盛期,早石炭世之后,台盆相间沉积维持了一定时期的强度,晚石炭世开始海水逐步恢复正常后台盆相间逐渐减弱,为台盆相间格局的衰退期。

Assessment of hydrocarbon generation potential and thermal maturity of the deep offshore Lamu Basin, Kenya

In this study, the secondary well data for Cretaceous to Miocene cutting samples in four deep offshore exploration wells, i.e., Pomboo-1 in the north, Kubwa-1 in the central, Simba-1 and Kiboko-1 in the south of the deep offshore Lamu Basin were assessed for identifying source rock presence and examining thermal maturity of the source rocks. The 2D basin modelling was used to analyse the bulk gas transformation in the basin. Total organic carbon (TOC) content values for the wells range from 0.09 wt % to 2.23 wt % with an average of 0.78 wt %. The average organic richness is higher in the Upper Cretaceous (0.83 wt %) than in the Palaeogene (0.65 wt %), Lower Cretaceous (0.28 wt %) and Upper Jurassic (0.30 wt %). The S_(1) averages for the Upper Cretaceous are 3.76 mg HC/g rock in Pomboo-1 and 0.31mg HC/g rock in Kubwa-1. The S_(2) averages for the Upper Cretaceous are 5.00 mg HC/g rock in Pomboo-1 and 0.72 mg HC/g rock in Kubwa-1. Hydrogen index (HI) values vary between 4 and 512 mg HC/g TOC with an average of 157.09 mg HC/g TOC. Organic matters were identified as mixed types of Ⅱ-Ⅲ (oil and gas prone) and Ⅲ-Ⅳ (gas prone) kerogen in the potential source rocks. The HI and S_(2) yield values are exceptionally high for the observed TOC values in Pomboo-1. The vitrinite reflectance and Tmax values of deep offshore Lamu Basin are in the ranges of 0.38%–0.72% and 360–441 ℃, respectively. It suggests the existence of both immature and mature source rocks. Vitrinite reflectance maturity favours near coastal region in the Upper Cretaceous. These results explain why Pomboo-1, Kubwa-1, Simba-1 and Kiboko-1 wells were dry. The temperatures are still cool for hydrocarbon generation in deep offshore. The critical risk for deep offshore Lamu Basin is charge, primarily source presence, and a lack of definitive evidence of a deep-water marine source rock being present. The four wells penetrate good quality reservoir and seal rocks, but source rock presence and maturity remain the critical play risk in the deep offshore Lamu Basin.

Three-dimensional simulations of strong ground motion in the Shidian basin based upon the spectral-element method

The strong motion of a small long and narrow basin caused by a moderate scenario earthquake is simulated by using the spectral-element method and the parallel computing technique.A total of five different geometrical profiles within the basin are used to analyze the generation and propagation of surface waves and their relation to the basin structures in both the time and frequency domain.The amplification effects are analyzed by the distribution of peak ground velocity(PGV)and cumulative kinetic energy(Ek) in the basin.The results show that in the 3D basin,the excitation of the fundamental and higher surface wave modes are similar to that of the 2D model.Small bowls in the basin have great influence on the amplification and distribution of strong ground motion,due to their lateral resonances when the wavelengths of the lateral surface waves are comparable to the size of the bowls.Obvious basin edge effects can be seen at the basin edge closer to the source for constructive interference between direct body waves and the basin-induced surface waves.The Ek distribution maps show very large values in small bowls and some corners in the basin due to the interference of waves propagating in different directions.A high impedance contrast model can excite more surface wave modes,resulting in longer shaking durations as well as more complex seismograms and PGV and Ek distributions.

1-D P- and S-wave velocity models for the collision zone between the northern Tianshan mountain and the Junggar basin based on local earthquake data

We have developed crustal minimum I-D P- and S-wave velocity models of the collision zone between the northern Tianshan mountain and the Junggar basin （86°E-89°E, 43°N-44.5°N）. These two models were created through inversion of 1 370 P- and 1 396 S-wave travel times from 173 well-constrained local earthquakes recorded by the Uriimqi sparse local seismic network and temporary seismic arrays. In contrast to previous models, our results indicate relatively low velocity at both shallow （〈10 km） and deep （30-45 km） depths. The shallow zone is interpreted to be the result of thick surficial sedimentary deposits, whereas the deeper anomaly is interpreted to result from ductile shearing and lower crustal fow. Additionally, we detected several transition layers under the lower crust, which may imply structural complexity of the uppermost mantle in this region. The improved models reduce the RMS residual of earthquake locations by 41.7% from 1.2 to 0.5 seconds. The more accurately located hypocenters appear to correlate with prominent local over-thrusts, which underlie an anticlinal fold belt and several blind faults. Positive station corrections are observed near the Junggar basin, which likely reflects low wave velocity; negative corrections near the Tianshan mountain and Bogda mountain suggest high wave velocity.

3-D physical model in strong ground motion numerical simulation:A case study of Kunming basin

Seismic hazard assessment based on urban active faults can provide scientific bases for city planning and project construction, while numerical simulation of strong ground motion is an important method for seismic hazard prediction and assessment. A 3-D physical model in conformity with real strata configuration of （mainly） the Quaternary is a prerequisite to ensure the reliability of the simulation results. In this paper, we give a detailed account of the technical scheme and process for creating a 3-D physical model in Kunming basin. The data used are synthe- sized from seismogeological data, borehole data, topographic data, digital elevation mode （DEM） data, seismic exploration results and wave velocity measurements. Strafigraphic division is based mainly on shear wave velocity, with strata sequence taken into consideration. The model construction is finally accomplished with ArcGIS and many relevant programming techniques via layer-by-layer stacking （in depth direction） of the adjacent medium interfaces （meshes）. Meanwhile, a database of 3-D physical models is set up, which provides model data and parameters for strong ground motion simulation. Some processing methods and significant issues are also addressed in the paper in accordance with different types of exploration and experimental data.

Risk assessment of water security in Haihe River Basin during drought periods based on D-S evidence theory

The weights of the drought risk index （DRI）, which linearly combines the reliability, resiliency, and vulnerability, are difficult to obtain due to complexities in water security during drought periods. Therefore, drought entropy was used to determine the weights of the three critical indices. Conventional simulation results regarding the risk load of water security during drought periods were often regarded as precise. However, neither the simulation process nor the DRI gives any consideration to uncertainties in drought events. Therefore, the Dempster-Shafer （D-S） evidence theory and the evidential reasoning algorithm were introduced, and the DRI values were calculated with consideration of uncertainties of the three indices. The drought entropy and evidential reasoning algorithm were used in a case study of the Haihe River Basin to assess water security risks during drought periods. The results of the new DRI values in two scenarios were compared and analyzed. It is shown that the values of the DRI in the D-S evidence algorithm increase slightly from the original results of Zhang et al. （2005）, and the results of risk assessment of water security during drought periods are reasonable according to the situation in the study area. This study can serve as a reference for further practical application and planning in the Haihe River Basin, and other relevant or similar studies.

伊洛瓦底盆地D区块及周缘古近系物源分析

缅甸D区块是伊洛瓦底盆地中西部与Letpanto油田相邻的区块,具有一定的油气勘探潜力,对物源方向的认识存在不同观点。笔者利用沉积物砾石成分、砂岩骨架成分、地球化学元素分析方法,旨在明确伊洛瓦底盆地D区块及周缘古近纪物源方向和类型,进而指导本区沉积相与油气资源勘探研究。砾石分析结果显示,存在自西向东方向的物源,古新世物源来自中、酸性火成岩,始新世来自浅变质岩、中性及基性火成岩。砂岩骨架成分分析显示,古近纪地层物源均来自弧造山带,既有大陆切割、未切割、过渡型岛弧来源,也有再旋回造山带来源。主量、微量、稀土元素分析结果判断物源区构造背景均属于大陆岛弧和主动大陆边缘,具有安山岩物源区特征。综合分析认为,本区古近纪物源演化具有一定继承和相似性,物源主要来自盆内链状岛弧和东部掸邦高地,喜马拉雅造山带不可能从北部直接提供物源。推测北部喜马拉雅造山带通过伊洛瓦底江从东部进入,为盆地提供物源。

第四纪盆地隐伏断层活动性的D-T法研究及应用

本文在跨断层钻孔勘探的基础上,针对钻孔联合剖面提出了钻孔沉积深度-时间(D-T)分析方法。该方法以深度为纵轴、沉积时代为横轴做每一钻孔的D-T曲线,分析同一钻探场地断层两侧D-T曲线反映的沉积速率的差别,判断断层的活动时代和错距。该方法在福州盆地和泉州盆地的城市活断层探测项目应用得到较好的结果。最后分析了该方法的影响因素,指出钻探场地的地形(古地形)的稳定平坦是D-T法的关键。

西藏羌塘盆地羌D2井原油类型及其勘探意义

羌D2井是目前羌塘盆地首口钻遇侏罗系布曲组含油层的地质井。通过对白云岩油层岩心样品系统采样和分析,发现钻井原油有两种类型。根据生物分子标志化合物中类异戊二烯烃、甾烷、萜烷系列进行的油源对比研究,初步认为羌塘盆地不同类型的两类原油可能有不同的来源,产自于不同环境的烃源岩之中。第一类原油来源于开阔海环境,生油母质以低等水生物为主,与侏罗系下统曲色组、中统布曲组烃源岩具有亲缘性;第二类原油来自于具有大量淡水注入的海湾河口环境,生油母质中高等植物标志显示明显,烃类可能来自侏罗系中统雀莫错组或夏里组烃源岩。该研究结果对确定羌塘盆地生油层系、圈定生烃洼陷具有指导意义。

DV-Discovery软件在准噶尔盆地中的应用

将DV—Discovery软件中的全三维可视化技术、全三维自动追踪技术、全三维体解释技术和构造演 化分析技术应用于准噶尔盆地中的多个三维工区;并在火成岩岩性体、岩性圈闭的识别、岩性体的追踪 和构造演化分析等方面取得了良好的效果。

D型菌解无定形体的形成及其生烃模式

通过对准噶尔盆地部分油藏烃源岩的电子显微镜研究，在大量样品中检出Ｄ型菌解无定形体，其母质来源具有二元混合性，形成在弱还原─原环境中，生烃门限Ｒ值为０．４％，生烃期大约为０．４％－０．７％，是轻质油（或凝析油）和天然气形成的重要组分之一。在低演化阶段，由于细菌参加了对有机质的改造，使Ⅱ－Ⅲ类烃源岩中富集氢，生烃能力变好。文章还初步探讨了芳烃化合物含量与菌解无定形体Ｄ形成的关系，指出当沉积体系中的硫和硫化氢与铁结合，形成稳定的黄铁矿物后，才有可能在Ⅲ型有机质中形成高含量的Ｄ型菌解无定形体。

融合概率积分模型与D-InSAR的开采沉陷预计

矿区地表植被多,开采沉陷速度快、量值大,所产生的地质灾害较一般性的地表沉陷严重,极易使得2景SAR影像失去相干性,造成解缠错误。针对矿区SAR影像相干性较低、下沉盆地中央相位值易丢失的情况,结合合成孔径雷达干涉差分技术(Differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar,D-In SAR)和基于遗传算法的概率积分模型,提出了一种矿区开采下沉盆地预计方法。以该方法利用矿区下沉盆地边缘一定数量的相干系数较高且下沉较明显的D-In SAR监测值和下沉盆地中央最大下沉点与拐点附近的少量观测值对某矿II3720工作面进行试验,首先利用概率积分模型反演概率积分法预计参数并采用遗传算法进行多次优化,然后利用得到的参数对该工作面下沉盆地进行模拟预计,结果表明:通过该方法得出的下沉盆地参数及下沉值与实测值较接近,有助于弥补由于矿区SAR影像干涉效果不佳而导致的预计精度不高的不足,通过少量的观测数据可较为有效地预计矿区下沉盆地,对于提高矿山开采沉陷监测与预计的精度有一定的参考价值。

基于D-S证据理论的多参数反演的火成岩识别——以塔里木盆地哈拉哈塘地区为例

塔里木盆地哈拉哈塘地区具有良好油源地质条件,该地区二叠系火成岩普遍发育,复杂的岩性和剧烈的厚度变化影响下覆油气资源的勘探.为识别该地区英安岩和玄武岩这2种主要分布的火成岩,分析不同岩性的特征响应,选取有效岩性识别参数,进行多参数反演;利用基于D-S证据理论的信息融合技术对多参数反演结果进行融合,挖掘参数反演数据体的优势信息,得到岩性识别的概率体,有效避免传统波阻抗反演结果的局限性.该方法可预测主要火成岩类型在空间上的展布和厚度变化,提高岩性解释精度,在识别火成岩岩性方面取得较好效果.

前陆盆地挠曲沉降和沉积过程3-D模型研究

前陆盆地是在造山带负荷作用下岩石圈发生挠曲沉降而形成的,并且被主要从造山带搬运的沉积物所充填。为了更好地理解和认识前陆盆地的形成演化机制,特别是受控于周缘多个造山带活动所形成的前陆盆地的演化机制,本文通过建立前陆盆地挠曲沉降与沉积过程的3-D模型,模拟展示了造山带逆冲推覆作用、岩石圈挠曲沉降响应及在山盆体系中由于动力地形变化而导致的河流体系的发育变化及其产生的剥蚀和沉积过程。模型的建立和实验完整体现了逆冲推覆、弹性挠曲沉降和沉积物搬运这三者之间的耦合机制,为全面深入研究前陆盆地动力学提供了理论依据和方法。

基于Modeflow下的地下水动态分析三维可视化研究与应用

基于地下水模拟软件Visual Modeflow计算得到的数据,依据年度来水量、地下水开采量对灌区地下水资源生成初始流场,设置预测时段,并经模型计算后生成预测年的流场、水位埋深、水位降深以及观测孔水位等数据文件,结合GIS区域分析方法,以空间网格划分为基础,采用三维可视化技术对模拟和预测结果进行可视化显示和分析,将区域地下水赋存环境、运动规律和动态特征直观展现,并对预测数据和常观井实际监测数据进行模型和结果验证,分析灌区地下水变化趋势,为水资源决策提供支持。

江淮流域梅雨期持续性强降水及其10～30d低频环流特征

利用1961-2010年中国556站的逐日降水资料和NCEP/NCAR逐日再分析资料,采用合成分析等方法探讨了江淮流域梅雨期持续性强降水的低频振荡特征及其发生前后低频大气环流场的演变特征.结果表明,汀淮梅雨持续性强降水存在显著的10～ 30 d低频振荡特征.持续性强降水发生时,汀淮流域对流层高层受东海低频反气旋西北部的偏西气流控制,使得南亚高压位置偏东,加强了高层的辐散型流场;对流层中层,中高纬度地区存在“＋、-、＋”的低频位势高度中心,蒙古低频低压使得极地冷空气易于南侵;对流层低层,汀淮流域受低频P-J波列西段的台湾岛低频反气旋影响,并伴随强烈的对流活动,此反气旋使得西太平洋副热带高压向更西的位置伸展;因此低层辐合、高层辐散使得汀淮流域表现为强烈的低频上升运动,同时低频水汽从孟加拉湾-南海一带输送到汀淮流域,为持续性强降水的发生提供了有利的低频环流条件.另外,在持续性强降水发生前后,低层低频正涡度向北、向西传播,高层低频负涡度向南、向东传播,高低层斜压结构明显,共同作用于汀淮流域,维持持续性强降水过程.

基于Dempster-Shafer证据理论的流域不透水表面扩张特性研究

[目的]揭示驱动盘龙江流域不透水表面扩张的影响因子,以及影响因子各属性值对不透水表面扩张的影响程度,并在分析驱动机制的基础上,模拟预测盘龙江流域的扩张趋势,为流域生态建设合理规划提供依据。[方法]采用Dempster—Shafer(D—S)证据理论来描述和融合多种空间数据,在已有的不透水表面(impervious surfaces,IS)信息与多种空间数据的量关系的基础上,采用数据驱动方法分配基本概率函数(basic probability assignment,BPA)。经过定义多种空间数据的BPA函数,然后采用D—S证据理论的融合规则融合多个BPA函数以获取研究区域IS的信任函数、不信任函数、不确定函数、似真函数。[结果]距道路距离,距居民点距离,距水系距离,人口密度,GDP,IS邻域单元数,坡度,高程驱动因子对盘龙江流域不透水表面的扩张影响比较大,而坡向对不透水表面扩张的影响程度变化不明显。不透水表面扩张模拟的精度达到78.04%。[结论]采用D—S证据理论方法来描述空间数据和融合多种空间数据具有比传统逻辑回归模型更好的分析和预测功能。