背景:铁死亡是一种铁依赖性脂质过氧化调控的程序性细胞死亡方式,与缺血性脑损伤的发生、发展及转归密切相关。近年来,随着对铁死亡研究的不断深入,发现中药复方、中药单体可通过减轻铁超载、减少活性氧产生、调控脂质合成等方式调节铁...背景:铁死亡是一种铁依赖性脂质过氧化调控的程序性细胞死亡方式,与缺血性脑损伤的发生、发展及转归密切相关。近年来,随着对铁死亡研究的不断深入,发现中药复方、中药单体可通过减轻铁超载、减少活性氧产生、调控脂质合成等方式调节铁死亡,减轻脑缺血损伤,促进神经功能恢复。目的:探讨铁死亡与缺血性脑损伤的关系及中药调控铁死亡治疗缺血性脑损伤的作用机制。方法:以“铁死亡,缺血性中风,脑损伤,活性氧,脂质代谢,中药复方,萜类,黄酮,酚类,生物碱,苯酞类等”为中文检索词,以“Iron death,ischemic stroke,brain injury,reactive oxygen species,lipid metabolism,traditional Chinese medicine formulas,terpenes,flavonoids,phenols,alkaloids,phthalides,etc”为英文检索词,检索2018年1月至2024年5月中国知网和PubMed数据库中有关铁死亡与缺血性脑损伤及中药调控机制的文献,排除与文章相关性不高及重复、过时的文献。共检索出1526篇相关文献,最终纳入87篇文献进行综述。结果与结论:大量实验研究证实,铁死亡在缺血性脑损伤中具有重要作用,中医方药可通过多种方式调节铁死亡,如三七总皂苷可调节铁代谢,抑制脂质过氧化;香芹酚通过增加谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4表达,抑制神经元铁死亡;中药复方和单体有效成分可调控铁死亡相关通路——谷胱甘肽/谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4(GPX4)、核因子E2相关因子2(Nrf2)/血红素加氧酶1(HO-1)、铁死亡抑制蛋白1(FSP1)/CoQ10及鸟苷三磷酸环水解酶1(GCH1)/四氢生物喋呤(BH4)等,减少神经元损伤和死亡,发挥脑保护作用。展开更多
Type 2 diabetes mellitus and Parkinson's disease are chronic diseases linked to a growing pandemic that affects older adults and causes significant socio-economic burden.Epidemiological data supporting a close rel...Type 2 diabetes mellitus and Parkinson's disease are chronic diseases linked to a growing pandemic that affects older adults and causes significant socio-economic burden.Epidemiological data supporting a close relationship between these two aging-related diseases have resulted in the investigation of shared pathophysiological molecular mechanisms.Impaired insulin signaling in the brain has gained increasing attention during the last decade and has been suggested to contribute to the development of Parkinson's disease through the dysregulation of several pathological processes.The contribution of type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance in neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease,with emphasis on brain insulin resistance,is extensively discussed in this article and new therapeutic strategies targeting this pathological link are presented and reviewed.展开更多
The N-terminal EF-hand calcium-binding proteins 1–3(NECAB1–3) constitute a family of predominantly neuronal proteins characterized by the presence of at least one EF-hand calcium-binding domain and a functionally le...The N-terminal EF-hand calcium-binding proteins 1–3(NECAB1–3) constitute a family of predominantly neuronal proteins characterized by the presence of at least one EF-hand calcium-binding domain and a functionally less well characterized C-terminal antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain. All three family members were initially discovered due to their interactions with other proteins. NECAB1 associates with synaptotagmin-1, a critical neuronal protein involved in membrane trafficking and synaptic vesicle exocytosis. NECAB2 interacts with predominantly striatal G-protein-coupled receptors, while NECAB3 partners with amyloid-β A4 precursor protein-binding family A members 2 and 3, key regulators of amyloid-β production. This demonstrates the capacity of the family for interactions with various classes of proteins. NECAB proteins exhibit distinct subcellular localizations: NECAB1 is found in the nucleus and cytosol, NECAB2 resides in endosomes and the plasma membrane, and NECAB3 is present in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. The antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain, an evolutionarily ancient component, is akin to atypical heme oxygenases in prokaryotes but is not wellcharacterized in vertebrates. Prokaryotic antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domains typically form dimers, suggesting that calcium-mediated conformational changes in NECAB proteins may induce antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain dimerization, potentially activating some enzymatic properties. However, the substrate for this enzymatic activity remains uncertain. Alternatively, calcium-mediated conformational changes might influence protein interactions or the subcellular localization of NECAB proteins by controlling the availability of protein–protein interaction domains situated between the EF hands and the antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain. This review summarizes what is known about genomic organization, tissue expression, intracellular localization, interaction partners, and the physiological and pathophysiological role of the NECAB family.展开更多
背景:富血小板血浆通过调节自噬和凋亡细胞因子、信号转导通路等方面在干预骨关节炎发展过程中发挥了重要作用。目的:总结近年来富血小板血浆在骨关节炎中发挥作用的细胞因子与信号通路,以及与软骨细胞自噬和凋亡的相关性,为未来治疗骨...背景:富血小板血浆通过调节自噬和凋亡细胞因子、信号转导通路等方面在干预骨关节炎发展过程中发挥了重要作用。目的:总结近年来富血小板血浆在骨关节炎中发挥作用的细胞因子与信号通路,以及与软骨细胞自噬和凋亡的相关性,为未来治疗骨关节炎提供有效的靶点。方法:在中国知网、万方数据库、维普、PubMed、Web of Science和Medline数据库进行文献检索,以“富血小板血浆,软骨细胞,细胞凋亡,细胞自噬,骨关节炎,细胞因子,信号通路”作为中文检索词,以“platelet-rich plasma,chondrocyte,apoptosis,autophagy,osteoarthritis,cytokines,signaling pathway”作为英文检索词,对最终纳入的66篇文献进行了系统性的总结和归纳。结果与结论:现有研究显示富血小板血浆能够通过多种途径促进软骨修复,助力骨组织愈合,其主要分为3个方面:①富血小板血浆参与调控了微自噬小体的延伸、闭合与成熟,并在特定条件下促进软骨细胞巨自噬和分子伴侣介导的细胞自噬,促进LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ、Beclin1等自噬相关因子的表达,抑制P62/SQSTM1的表达,目前尚未有明确的研究直接探讨富血小板血浆对热休克蛋白的具体作用,未来在这一领域值得进一步研究;②富血小板血浆释放的各类生长因子抑制促凋亡因子Caspase、白细胞介素1β、肿瘤坏死因子α的表达,促进抗凋亡因子Bcl-2的表达,阻止软骨细胞凋亡和变性;③富血小板血浆通过激活PI3K/AKT/mTOR信号通路、NF-κB信号转导通路、死亡受体通路、线粒体应激通路等途径,抑制Bax和Caspase的表达,阻止细胞色素c的释放,从而抑制软骨细胞死亡和坏死性凋亡。综合而言,富血小板血浆促进软骨修复、支持软骨再生及发挥抗炎作用,其在软骨细胞中实现生物效应通常依赖于细胞自噬和凋亡相关细胞因子及信号通路的调控。展开更多
Ischemic stroke is a cerebrovascular disease associated with high mortality and disability rates. Since the inflammation and immune response play a central role in driving ischemic damage, it becomes essential to modu...Ischemic stroke is a cerebrovascular disease associated with high mortality and disability rates. Since the inflammation and immune response play a central role in driving ischemic damage, it becomes essential to modulate excessive inflammatory reactions to promote cell survival and facilitate tissue repair around the injury site. Various cell types are involved in the inflammatory response, including microglia, astrocytes, and neutrophils, each exhibiting distinct phenotypic profiles upon stimulation. They display either proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory states, a phenomenon known as ‘cell polarization.’ There are two cell polarization therapy strategies. The first involves inducing cells into a neuroprotective phenotype in vitro, then reintroducing them autologously. The second approach utilizes small molecular substances to directly affect cells in vivo. In this review, we elucidate the polarization dynamics of the three reactive cell populations(microglia, astrocytes, and neutrophils) in the context of ischemic stroke, and provide a comprehensive summary of the molecular mechanisms involved in their phenotypic switching. By unraveling the complexity of cell polarization, we hope to offer insights for future research on neuroinflammation and novel therapeutic strategies for ischemic stroke.展开更多
Astrocytes are the most abundant type of glial cell in the central nervous system.Upon injury and inflammation,astrocytes become reactive and undergo morphological and functional changes.Depending on their phenotypic ...Astrocytes are the most abundant type of glial cell in the central nervous system.Upon injury and inflammation,astrocytes become reactive and undergo morphological and functional changes.Depending on their phenotypic classification as A1 or A2,reactive astrocytes contribute to both neurotoxic and neuroprotective responses,respectively.However,this binary classification does not fully capture the diversity of astrocyte responses observed across different diseases and injuries.Transcriptomic analysis has revealed that reactive astrocytes have a complex landscape of gene expression profiles,which emphasizes the heterogeneous nature of their reactivity.Astrocytes actively participate in regulating central nervous system inflammation by interacting with microglia and other cell types,releasing cytokines,and influencing the immune response.The phosphoinositide 3-kinase(PI3K)/protein kinase B(AKT)signaling pathway is a central player in astrocyte reactivity and impacts various aspects of astrocyte behavior,as evidenced by in silico,in vitro,and in vivo results.In astrocytes,inflammatory cues trigger a cascade of molecular events,where nuclear factor-κB serves as a central mediator of the pro-inflammatory responses.Here,we review the heterogeneity of reactive astrocytes and the molecular mechanisms underlying their activation.We highlight the involvement of various signaling pathways that regulate astrocyte reactivity,including the PI3K/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin(mTOR),αvβ3 integrin/PI3K/AKT/connexin 43,and Notch/PI3K/AKT pathways.While targeting the inactivation of the PI3K/AKT cellular signaling pathway to control reactive astrocytes and prevent central nervous system damage,evidence suggests that activating this pathway could also yield beneficial outcomes.This dual function of the PI3K/AKT pathway underscores its complexity in astrocyte reactivity and brain function modulation.The review emphasizes the importance of employing astrocyte-exclusive models to understand their functions accurately and these models are essential for clarifying astrocyte behavior.The findings should then be validated using in vivo models to ensure real-life relevance.The review also highlights the significance of PI3K/AKT pathway modulation in preventing central nervous system damage,although further studies are required to fully comprehend its role due to varying factors such as different cell types,astrocyte responses to inflammation,and disease contexts.Specific strategies are clearly necessary to address these variables effectively.展开更多
Microglial activation that occurs rapidly after closed head injury may play important and complex roles in neuroinflammation-associated neuronal damage and repair.We previously reported that induced neural stem cells ...Microglial activation that occurs rapidly after closed head injury may play important and complex roles in neuroinflammation-associated neuronal damage and repair.We previously reported that induced neural stem cells can modulate the behavior of activated microglia via CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling,influencing their activation such that they can promote neurological recovery.However,the mechanism of CXCR4 upregulation in induced neural stem cells remains unclear.In this study,we found that nuclear factor-κB activation induced by closed head injury mouse serum in microglia promoted CXCL12 and tumor necrosis factor-αexpression but suppressed insulin-like growth factor-1 expression.However,recombinant complement receptor 2-conjugated Crry(CR2-Crry)reduced the effects of closed head injury mouse serum-induced nuclear factor-κB activation in microglia and the levels of activated microglia,CXCL12,and tumor necrosis factor-α.Additionally,we observed that,in response to stimulation(including stimulation by CXCL12 secreted by activated microglia),CXCR4 and Crry levels can be upregulated in induced neural stem cells via the interplay among CXCL12/CXCR4,Crry,and Akt signaling to modulate microglial activation.In agreement with these in vitro experimental results,we found that Akt activation enhanced the immunoregulatory effects of induced neural stem cell grafts on microglial activation,leading to the promotion of neurological recovery via insulin-like growth factor-1 secretion and the neuroprotective effects of induced neural stem cell grafts through CXCR4 and Crry upregulation in the injured cortices of closed head injury mice.Notably,these beneficial effects of Akt activation in induced neural stem cells were positively correlated with the therapeutic effects of induced neural stem cells on neuronal injury,cerebral edema,and neurological disorders post–closed head injury.In conclusion,our findings reveal that Akt activation may enhance the immunoregulatory effects of induced neural stem cells on microglial activation via upregulation of CXCR4 and Crry,thereby promoting induced neural stem cell–mediated improvement of neuronal injury,cerebral edema,and neurological disorders following closed head injury.展开更多
文摘背景:铁死亡是一种铁依赖性脂质过氧化调控的程序性细胞死亡方式,与缺血性脑损伤的发生、发展及转归密切相关。近年来,随着对铁死亡研究的不断深入,发现中药复方、中药单体可通过减轻铁超载、减少活性氧产生、调控脂质合成等方式调节铁死亡,减轻脑缺血损伤,促进神经功能恢复。目的:探讨铁死亡与缺血性脑损伤的关系及中药调控铁死亡治疗缺血性脑损伤的作用机制。方法:以“铁死亡,缺血性中风,脑损伤,活性氧,脂质代谢,中药复方,萜类,黄酮,酚类,生物碱,苯酞类等”为中文检索词,以“Iron death,ischemic stroke,brain injury,reactive oxygen species,lipid metabolism,traditional Chinese medicine formulas,terpenes,flavonoids,phenols,alkaloids,phthalides,etc”为英文检索词,检索2018年1月至2024年5月中国知网和PubMed数据库中有关铁死亡与缺血性脑损伤及中药调控机制的文献,排除与文章相关性不高及重复、过时的文献。共检索出1526篇相关文献,最终纳入87篇文献进行综述。结果与结论:大量实验研究证实,铁死亡在缺血性脑损伤中具有重要作用,中医方药可通过多种方式调节铁死亡,如三七总皂苷可调节铁代谢,抑制脂质过氧化;香芹酚通过增加谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4表达,抑制神经元铁死亡;中药复方和单体有效成分可调控铁死亡相关通路——谷胱甘肽/谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4(GPX4)、核因子E2相关因子2(Nrf2)/血红素加氧酶1(HO-1)、铁死亡抑制蛋白1(FSP1)/CoQ10及鸟苷三磷酸环水解酶1(GCH1)/四氢生物喋呤(BH4)等,减少神经元损伤和死亡,发挥脑保护作用。
基金support from Region Stockholm,ALF-project(FoUI-960041)Open Access funding is provided by Karolinska Institute(both to IM)。
文摘Type 2 diabetes mellitus and Parkinson's disease are chronic diseases linked to a growing pandemic that affects older adults and causes significant socio-economic burden.Epidemiological data supporting a close relationship between these two aging-related diseases have resulted in the investigation of shared pathophysiological molecular mechanisms.Impaired insulin signaling in the brain has gained increasing attention during the last decade and has been suggested to contribute to the development of Parkinson's disease through the dysregulation of several pathological processes.The contribution of type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance in neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease,with emphasis on brain insulin resistance,is extensively discussed in this article and new therapeutic strategies targeting this pathological link are presented and reviewed.
基金supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (ME1922/14-1) to AM。
文摘The N-terminal EF-hand calcium-binding proteins 1–3(NECAB1–3) constitute a family of predominantly neuronal proteins characterized by the presence of at least one EF-hand calcium-binding domain and a functionally less well characterized C-terminal antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain. All three family members were initially discovered due to their interactions with other proteins. NECAB1 associates with synaptotagmin-1, a critical neuronal protein involved in membrane trafficking and synaptic vesicle exocytosis. NECAB2 interacts with predominantly striatal G-protein-coupled receptors, while NECAB3 partners with amyloid-β A4 precursor protein-binding family A members 2 and 3, key regulators of amyloid-β production. This demonstrates the capacity of the family for interactions with various classes of proteins. NECAB proteins exhibit distinct subcellular localizations: NECAB1 is found in the nucleus and cytosol, NECAB2 resides in endosomes and the plasma membrane, and NECAB3 is present in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. The antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain, an evolutionarily ancient component, is akin to atypical heme oxygenases in prokaryotes but is not wellcharacterized in vertebrates. Prokaryotic antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domains typically form dimers, suggesting that calcium-mediated conformational changes in NECAB proteins may induce antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain dimerization, potentially activating some enzymatic properties. However, the substrate for this enzymatic activity remains uncertain. Alternatively, calcium-mediated conformational changes might influence protein interactions or the subcellular localization of NECAB proteins by controlling the availability of protein–protein interaction domains situated between the EF hands and the antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain. This review summarizes what is known about genomic organization, tissue expression, intracellular localization, interaction partners, and the physiological and pathophysiological role of the NECAB family.
文摘背景:富血小板血浆通过调节自噬和凋亡细胞因子、信号转导通路等方面在干预骨关节炎发展过程中发挥了重要作用。目的:总结近年来富血小板血浆在骨关节炎中发挥作用的细胞因子与信号通路,以及与软骨细胞自噬和凋亡的相关性,为未来治疗骨关节炎提供有效的靶点。方法:在中国知网、万方数据库、维普、PubMed、Web of Science和Medline数据库进行文献检索,以“富血小板血浆,软骨细胞,细胞凋亡,细胞自噬,骨关节炎,细胞因子,信号通路”作为中文检索词,以“platelet-rich plasma,chondrocyte,apoptosis,autophagy,osteoarthritis,cytokines,signaling pathway”作为英文检索词,对最终纳入的66篇文献进行了系统性的总结和归纳。结果与结论:现有研究显示富血小板血浆能够通过多种途径促进软骨修复,助力骨组织愈合,其主要分为3个方面:①富血小板血浆参与调控了微自噬小体的延伸、闭合与成熟,并在特定条件下促进软骨细胞巨自噬和分子伴侣介导的细胞自噬,促进LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ、Beclin1等自噬相关因子的表达,抑制P62/SQSTM1的表达,目前尚未有明确的研究直接探讨富血小板血浆对热休克蛋白的具体作用,未来在这一领域值得进一步研究;②富血小板血浆释放的各类生长因子抑制促凋亡因子Caspase、白细胞介素1β、肿瘤坏死因子α的表达,促进抗凋亡因子Bcl-2的表达,阻止软骨细胞凋亡和变性;③富血小板血浆通过激活PI3K/AKT/mTOR信号通路、NF-κB信号转导通路、死亡受体通路、线粒体应激通路等途径,抑制Bax和Caspase的表达,阻止细胞色素c的释放,从而抑制软骨细胞死亡和坏死性凋亡。综合而言,富血小板血浆促进软骨修复、支持软骨再生及发挥抗炎作用,其在软骨细胞中实现生物效应通常依赖于细胞自噬和凋亡相关细胞因子及信号通路的调控。
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, Nos.82201474 (to GL), 82071330 (to ZT), and 92148206 (to ZT)Key Research and Discovery Program of Hubei Province, No.2021BCA109 (to ZT)。
文摘Ischemic stroke is a cerebrovascular disease associated with high mortality and disability rates. Since the inflammation and immune response play a central role in driving ischemic damage, it becomes essential to modulate excessive inflammatory reactions to promote cell survival and facilitate tissue repair around the injury site. Various cell types are involved in the inflammatory response, including microglia, astrocytes, and neutrophils, each exhibiting distinct phenotypic profiles upon stimulation. They display either proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory states, a phenomenon known as ‘cell polarization.’ There are two cell polarization therapy strategies. The first involves inducing cells into a neuroprotective phenotype in vitro, then reintroducing them autologously. The second approach utilizes small molecular substances to directly affect cells in vivo. In this review, we elucidate the polarization dynamics of the three reactive cell populations(microglia, astrocytes, and neutrophils) in the context of ischemic stroke, and provide a comprehensive summary of the molecular mechanisms involved in their phenotypic switching. By unraveling the complexity of cell polarization, we hope to offer insights for future research on neuroinflammation and novel therapeutic strategies for ischemic stroke.
基金supported by Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico(FONDECYT)#1200836,#1210644,and#1240888,and Agencia Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo(ANID)-FONDAP#15130011(to LL)FONDECYT#3230227(to MFG).
文摘Astrocytes are the most abundant type of glial cell in the central nervous system.Upon injury and inflammation,astrocytes become reactive and undergo morphological and functional changes.Depending on their phenotypic classification as A1 or A2,reactive astrocytes contribute to both neurotoxic and neuroprotective responses,respectively.However,this binary classification does not fully capture the diversity of astrocyte responses observed across different diseases and injuries.Transcriptomic analysis has revealed that reactive astrocytes have a complex landscape of gene expression profiles,which emphasizes the heterogeneous nature of their reactivity.Astrocytes actively participate in regulating central nervous system inflammation by interacting with microglia and other cell types,releasing cytokines,and influencing the immune response.The phosphoinositide 3-kinase(PI3K)/protein kinase B(AKT)signaling pathway is a central player in astrocyte reactivity and impacts various aspects of astrocyte behavior,as evidenced by in silico,in vitro,and in vivo results.In astrocytes,inflammatory cues trigger a cascade of molecular events,where nuclear factor-κB serves as a central mediator of the pro-inflammatory responses.Here,we review the heterogeneity of reactive astrocytes and the molecular mechanisms underlying their activation.We highlight the involvement of various signaling pathways that regulate astrocyte reactivity,including the PI3K/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin(mTOR),αvβ3 integrin/PI3K/AKT/connexin 43,and Notch/PI3K/AKT pathways.While targeting the inactivation of the PI3K/AKT cellular signaling pathway to control reactive astrocytes and prevent central nervous system damage,evidence suggests that activating this pathway could also yield beneficial outcomes.This dual function of the PI3K/AKT pathway underscores its complexity in astrocyte reactivity and brain function modulation.The review emphasizes the importance of employing astrocyte-exclusive models to understand their functions accurately and these models are essential for clarifying astrocyte behavior.The findings should then be validated using in vivo models to ensure real-life relevance.The review also highlights the significance of PI3K/AKT pathway modulation in preventing central nervous system damage,although further studies are required to fully comprehend its role due to varying factors such as different cell types,astrocyte responses to inflammation,and disease contexts.Specific strategies are clearly necessary to address these variables effectively.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China,Nos.82271397(to MG),82001293(to MG),82171355(to RX),81971295(to RX),and 81671189(to RX)。
文摘Microglial activation that occurs rapidly after closed head injury may play important and complex roles in neuroinflammation-associated neuronal damage and repair.We previously reported that induced neural stem cells can modulate the behavior of activated microglia via CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling,influencing their activation such that they can promote neurological recovery.However,the mechanism of CXCR4 upregulation in induced neural stem cells remains unclear.In this study,we found that nuclear factor-κB activation induced by closed head injury mouse serum in microglia promoted CXCL12 and tumor necrosis factor-αexpression but suppressed insulin-like growth factor-1 expression.However,recombinant complement receptor 2-conjugated Crry(CR2-Crry)reduced the effects of closed head injury mouse serum-induced nuclear factor-κB activation in microglia and the levels of activated microglia,CXCL12,and tumor necrosis factor-α.Additionally,we observed that,in response to stimulation(including stimulation by CXCL12 secreted by activated microglia),CXCR4 and Crry levels can be upregulated in induced neural stem cells via the interplay among CXCL12/CXCR4,Crry,and Akt signaling to modulate microglial activation.In agreement with these in vitro experimental results,we found that Akt activation enhanced the immunoregulatory effects of induced neural stem cell grafts on microglial activation,leading to the promotion of neurological recovery via insulin-like growth factor-1 secretion and the neuroprotective effects of induced neural stem cell grafts through CXCR4 and Crry upregulation in the injured cortices of closed head injury mice.Notably,these beneficial effects of Akt activation in induced neural stem cells were positively correlated with the therapeutic effects of induced neural stem cells on neuronal injury,cerebral edema,and neurological disorders post–closed head injury.In conclusion,our findings reveal that Akt activation may enhance the immunoregulatory effects of induced neural stem cells on microglial activation via upregulation of CXCR4 and Crry,thereby promoting induced neural stem cell–mediated improvement of neuronal injury,cerebral edema,and neurological disorders following closed head injury.
