Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Lower-Level Health Care Facilities of Dar es Salaam Region in Tanzania: Status towards Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and Way Forward

Background: Improving Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in health care settings is a critical prerequisite for achieving national health goals and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The World Health Organization (WHO) has set a target for each United Nations member state to reach by 2030. Each member state is required to reach by 2022, 2025 and 2030 at least 60%, 80% and 100%, respectively of basic level of service of the five elements which are water, sanitation, hygiene, waste management and environmental cleaning. Methods: This study aimed to evaluate and document the current state of basic water, sanitation, and hygiene services in all lower-level health care facilities in the Dar es Salaam region of Tanzania as of July 2022. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 99 public dispensaries in the Dar es Salaam region’s five councils: Ubungo, Kigamboni, Kinondoni and Temeke Municipalities, and Ilala City. The interviewee form and observational checklists were both digitalized using the Kobo tool software. The respondents were health care facility in-charges or nurse in-charges. Data were downloaded, validated, and imported to Stata version 15 for analysis. Results: The basic WASH level per JMP is far below the target in 2022. Each member state by 2022 is required to reach at least 60% of the basic level of service of each element. We found a low coverage of basic WASH in the 99 dispensaries included in this study. The basic WASH coverage was met in only 10 (10.1%) of the dispensaries, while the remaining 89 (89.9%) dispensaries fall on limited WASH services. Conclusion: This study revealed lower coverage of basic WASH services in dispensaries. An urgent need is required to improve the status of WASH in all the dispensaries and facilitate the provision of quality health care services, patient safety and reduce health care associated infections.

Estimation of Different Categories of Healthcare Waste Generated at Two Different Hospital Categories in Four Hospitals in Dar es Salaam City

This study aims to estimate the quantity of healthcare waste categorically generated in four different healthcare in Dar es Salaam city namely, Muhimbili National Hospital, Mwananyamala Regional Referral Hospital, Temeke Regional Referral Hospital and Ilala Regional Referral Hospital to evaluate the quantities of medical waste generated based on their level and capacity. Waste was collected in different categories of non-infectious, sharps, infectious, infectious plastics, and pathological waste which were measured daily for fourteen (14) consecutive days in all hospitals by using a weighting scale and observational checklist to document related waste management information and the assessment of the healthcare waste generation in each hospital. The average general healthcare waste generation rate per healthcare ranges from 298.9 kg/day to 1554.4 kg/day. The high fluctuation in general medical waste was established to be attributed to specialization difference between one hospital to the other, and the large number of in-patients and out patients between hospitals. The overall average sharps waste generation rate was established to range from 8.5 ± 2.7 - 13.9 ± 1.8 kg/day. Higher values of sharps waste generated observed at Muhimbili hospital are due to emergency cases referred to from other hospitals located within the city and from the surrounding districts and other regions of the country. The results from this study, raise alarm to hospital administrators, and other health stakeholders working in related fields to give special attention and priority in setting a related share in their budgets for proper management of medical waste in their health facilities.

Fuzzy Analysis and Evaluation of Public Transport Service Quality: A Case Study of Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania

Urban public transport plays a critical role in stimulating economic development of any nation since most of the revenues come from cities. The majority of the city dwellers of any country use public transport. The evaluation of public transport service quality provides a valuable feedback to commuter operators to ensure continuous improvement of level of service and to the government to take appropriate measures for enhancing the quality of public transport service. This paper analyses and evaluates service quality of Road Public Transport (RPT) (i.e. minibuses and buses) and Urban Rail Transport (URT) in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. Since service quality and its attributes are intangible and vague, a fuzzy evaluation model is developed and applied. The formulated model is composed of Fuzzy Entropy Method (FEM) and Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). The overall evaluation procedure is as follows: initially, an intensive literature search and experts’ opinions are employed to establish criteria for evaluating the service quality of public transport in Dar es Salaam City. The developed FEM is used to obtain criteria weight. Lastly, the formulated TOPSIS is used to provide an overall ranking of urban public transport service quality. The overall evaluation shows that urban rail transport outperforms road public transport in terms of service quality. Nevertheless, the urban rail transport service in Dar es Salaam City is currently not well developed as it is provided on very limited routes. Thus, the Tanzania government, the rail transport operator i.e. Tanzania Railway Limited (TRL) and the agency responsible for the provision of rail infrastructure i.e. Reli Assets Holding Company (RAHCO) are advised to design and employ Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) schemes i.e. concession contracts to invest more in rolling stocks, locomotives and rail wagons so that the rail transport service is available on many routes of the road public transport to bring fair competition between the two operators.

Flooding in Informal Settlements: Potentials and Limits for Household Adaptation in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania

Rapid urbanization and climate change are compounding the vulnerability of the urban poor to natural hazards, particularly in the global south. Large number of the population in cities of developing countries live in informal settlements characterized with lack of infrastructure facilities and services. Majority of the informal settlements are located in risk areas such as low-lying lands and river banks whereby climatic threats associated with flooding are common. The urban informal settlements are thus disproportionately more vulnerable due to their greater exposure associated with their geophysical location, under-invested infrastructure facilities as well as poor housing quality. While it is widely acknowledged that the need to adapt to climate change related hazards such as flooding is no longer an option, literature suggests that potentials and opportunities for adaptation are unevenly distributed among global regions, communities, sectors, ecological systems as well as across different time periods. This study sought to explore the potentials and limits of households living in flood prone in an informal settlement of Magomeni Suna, Dar es Salaam Tanzania. The study employed a mixed method research design using both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis. Quantitative data were collected through a structured questionnaire administered to 199 randomly selected respondents, while non participant observation was used to capture information related to household physical adaptation measures. Key informant interviews were used to elicit data from purposively selected representatives of government and other local institutions. Two focus group discussions supplemented the data collected through the other methods. The results show that households employ multiple options for flood adaptation ranging from structural measures aimed at preventing flood water from entering the houses, to action oriented strategies such as relocation. The results also highlight there exist potentials like strong social networks, cohesive communities, and presence of various local institutions willing to support household responses to floods. Limitations to flood adaptation include little support and ad hoc intervention by government authorities, as well as meagre household income. To enhance household adaptation to flood hazards, policy measures towards enhancing social networks and community actions for flood adaptation are necessary. There is also a need to enhance multi institutional involvement as well as promote local livelihoods so as to improve household adaptation to floods.

Assessing Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model Parameterization Schemes Skill to Simulate Extreme Rainfall Events over Dar es Salaam on 21 December 2011

This paper evaluates the skills of physical Parameterization schemes in simulating extreme rainfall events over Dar es Salaam Region, Tanzania using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. The model skill is determined during the 21 December 2011 flooding event. Ten sensitivity experiments have been conducted using Cumulus, Convective and Planetary boundary layer schemes to find the best combination and optimize the WRF model for the study area for heavy rainfall events. Model simulation results were verified against observed data using standard statistical tests. The model simulations show encouraging and better statistical results with the combination of Kain-Fritsch cumulus parameterization scheme, Lin microphysics scheme and Asymmetric Convection Model 2 (ACM2) planetary boundary scheme than any other combinations of physical parameterization schemes over Dar es Salaam region.

Quantification of Annual Urban Growth of Dar es Salaam Tanzania from Landsat Time Series Data

The information on urban land cover distribution and its dynamics is useful for understanding urbanization and its impacts on the hydrological cycle, water management, surface energy balances, urban heat island, and biodiversity. This study utilizes machine learning, texture variables and spectral bands to quantify the urban growth annually. We used multi-temporal Landsat satellite image sets from 2007 to 2016 and Random Forest classification to map urban land-use in Dar es Salaam. We also applied Annual classification approach to detect the spatiotemporal patterns of urban areas. This approach improved classification accuracy and aided in understanding the urban land-use system dynamics operating in our study area. The results pointed out that, the total built-up areas have grown from 318 km2, 388.6 km2 and 634.7 km2 in 2007, 2012 and 2016 respectively. The built up areas growth rate is almost 8%, which makes Dar es Salaam be among the fastest growing cities in Africa. The results indicate that, combining spectral bands, texture variables (NDVI BCI, MNDWI) and annual classification map approach was sufficient to map the urban areas. The approach applied in this research provides a useful guide to the urban growth studies and may also serve as a tool for land management planners.

Assessment of Sediment and Benthic Macrofauna Distribution at Dar es Salaam Harbour Channel

Sediment and macrobenthic fauna distribution at Dar es Salaam harbour channel were investigated to attest the influence of sediment grain size distribution and total organic carbon contents on benthic macrofauna dominance and diversity. Sampling campaign was conducted from January to April, 2019 in 25 sampling stations along the channel. Sediment grain sizes ranged between 0.7405 and 0.00273 mm with an average of 0.0804 mm classified as medium silt. Sediment distribution showed an onshore-offshore pattern consisting of fine dark clay-silt sediments in the southern part of the harbour close to Mwalimu Nyerere Bridge, medium (sandy) at the harbour and coarse sandy offshore. Five classes of macrofauna were identified with sedentary Polychaetes (Diopatra cuprea) found in tubes and free forms being dominant in most of the sediment types, however more abundant in clay-silt. High species diversity index values were encountered in sediments with medium total organic carbon (TOC) and sediment grain sizes (sand-silt). Apparently, low species similarity indices were observed in all sediment type indicating significant dissimilarities in species composition among sediment grain sizes. Thus, the distribution of benthic macrofauna species along Dar es Salaam harbour channel is strongly influenced by the sediment grain sizes and organic carbon contents in sediments.

Analysis of Ground Level Ozone and Nitrogen Oxides in the City of Dar es Salaam and the Rural Area of Bagamoyo, Tanzania

From 2012 to 2015, we measured surface ozone, NOx, NO2, and NO levels at three urban sites (Mapipa, Ubungo, and Posta) and two suburban sites (Kunduchi and Vijibweni) in the city of Dar es Salaam and in the village of Mwetemo, a rural area of Bagamoyo, Tanzania. The average hourly O3 concentrations at all sites were between 9 ppb and 30 ppb during our sampling periods. O3 levels at suburban sites were generally higher than at urban sites. The average hourly concentrations in Dar es Salaam were 10 - 32 ppb, while in Bagamoyo they were 9 - 15 ppb. We observed a strong diurnal variation in Dar es Salaam while measurements from Bagamoyo showed little variation. At Dar es Salaam, the surface O3 concentrations increased from their minimum level at sunrise (around 6:00 a.m.) to a maximum in the late afternoon (around 4:00 p.m.), and then decreased toward 11:00 p.m. Another secondary ozone peak appeared between midnight and ~4:00 a.m., after which the surface ozone concentrations decreased to a minimum around 7:00 a.m. NO2 concentrations were higher at the urban sites of Ubungo and Posta, and their weekly average NO2 concentrations were 246 ppb and 118 ppb, respectively. Weekly average NOx concentrations ranged from 39.4 ppb at the Kunduchi site (suburban) to 738 ppb at the Ubungo site (urban). To our knowledge, there were few continuous measurements of ozone and nitrogen oxides concentrations in Tanzania. Since high NOx concentrations were observed, continuous air quality monitoring and effective air pollution control measures are required in Dar es Salaam to prevent further deterioration of air quality and limit the possible negative impacts on humans and vegetation.

Habitat productivity and pyrethroid susceptibility status of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in Dar es Salaam,Tanzania

Background:Aedes aegypti(Diptera:Culicidae)is the main vector of the dengue virus globally.Dengue vector control is mainly based on reducing the vector population through interventions,which target potential breeding sites.However,in Tanzania,little is known about this vector’s habitat productivity and insecticide susceptibility status to support evidence-based implementation of control measures.The present study aimed at assessing the productivity and susceptibility status of A.aegypti mosquitoes to pyrethroid-based insecticides in Dar es Salaam,Tanzania.Methods:An entomological assessment was conducted between January and July 2015 in six randomly selected wards in Dar es Salaam,Tanzania.Habitat productivity was determined by the number of female adult A.aegypti mosquitoes emerged per square metre.The susceptibility status of adult A.aegypti females after exposure to 0.05%deltamethrin,0.75%permethrin and 0.05%lambda-cyhalothrin was evaluated using the standard WHO protocols.Mortality rates were recorded after 24 h exposure and the knockdown effect was recorded at the time points of 10,15,20,30,40,50 and 60 min to calculate the median knockdown times(KDT50 and KDT95).Results:The results suggest that disposed tyres had the highest productivity,while water storage tanks had the lowest productivity among the breeding habitats Of A.aegypti mosquitoes.All sites demonstrated reduced susceptibility to deltamethrin(0.05%)within 24 h post exposure,with mortalities ranging from 86.3±1.9(mean±SD)to 96.8±0.9(mean±SD).The lowest and highest susceptibilities were recorded in Mikocheni and Sinza wards,respectively.Similarly,all sites demonstrated reduced susceptibility permethrin(0.75%)ranging from 83.1±2.1%(mean±SD)to 96.2±0.9%(mean±SD),in Kipawa and Sinza,respectively.Relatively low mortality rates were observed in relation to lambda-cyhalothrin(0.05%)at all sites,ranging from 83.1±0.7(mean±SD)to 86.3±1.4(mean±SD).The median KDT_(50)for deltamethrin,permethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin were 24.9-30.3 min,24.3-34.4 min and 26.7-32.8 min,respectively.The KDT_(95)were 55.2-90.9 min for deltamethrin,54.3-94.6 min for permethrin and 64.5-69.2 min for lambda-cyhalothrin.Conclusions:The productive habitats for A.aegypti mosquitoes found in Dar es Salaam were water storage containers,discarded tins and tyres.There was a reduced susceptibility of A.aegypti to and emergence of resistance against pyrethroid-based insecticides.The documented differences in the resistance profiles of A.aegypti mosquitoes warrants regular monitoring the pattern concerning resistance against pyrethroid-based insecticides and define dengue vector control strategies.

Social Activity Patterns Drive High Rates of Latent Tuberculosis Infection among Adolescents in Urban Tanzania<br/>—Latent TB Infection in Adolescents, Tanzania

SETTING: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of latent tuberculosis (TB) infection (LTBI) among adolescents in a country with a high TB burden, and examine risks of LTBI according to their social activity patterns. METHODS: A cross-sectional study nested within a phase 2b randomised, placebo controlled, double blind study and consisted of 824 adolescents, 13 - 15 years old who had received Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, were attending public secondary schools and had no evidence of active tuberculosis (TB). Anthropometric measurements were obtained, a questionnaire administered, and phlebotomy performed for a T spot interferon-γ?release assay (IGRA) to detect LTBI. RESULTS: Among 824 subjects, 149 (18%) had a positive IGRA. After adjusting for the influence of household socioeconomic status, history of TB contact, living environment and nutritional status, LTBI risk was higher in subjects with than without regular informal encounters with traditional alcoholic beverage drinkers (AOR, 6.37 [1.84 - 22.00]). Other significant factors for LTBI risk included contact with TB patient at school (AOR, 3.34 [1.14 - 9.80]), and living close to a health facility, as was observed among those from houses within a 10 - 30-minute walking distance to the nearest health facility, who were less likely to be IGRA-positive than those who were living within a 10-minute walking distance (AOR, 0.30 [95%CI, 0.13 - 0.69]). CONCLUSION: This IGRA study revealed a high prevalence of LTBI among adolescents in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania with prior BCG immunization. Informal social encounters were identified as independent risk factors for LTBI, along with a history of contact with TB patients, living environment characteristics and household socioeconomic status. Efforts focusing on risk of MTB transmission in adolescents at informal social gatherings will improve interventions to reduce LTBI in this population and consequently the subsequent risk of developing active TB disease.

2002—2012年达累斯萨拉姆城市蔓延特征及影响因素

以坦桑尼亚首位城市达累斯萨拉姆2002、2007和2012年土地利用分类数据为基础,结合实地调研,运用扇形分析和同心圆分析等方法,以及用地增长弹性系数、扩展强度指数、紧凑度、分形维数等指标,研究达累斯萨拉姆近年来城市蔓延的总体态势和空间格局特征。研究结果表明:1)2002—2012年间达累斯萨拉姆城市蔓延特征明显,蔓延程度较高,蔓延速度不断加快,主要表现为非正式聚落不断增长情况下的城乡混合发展,侵占的土地类型主要为裸地,其次为植被;2)2002—2007年城市建成区主要沿交通干道以及在市中心周边进行轴线式蔓延,2007—2012年主要在交通干道间及城市边缘地区进行填充式蔓延,城市空间形态由指状向团块状演变;3)城市蔓延方向性明显,向西北、西、西南和东南扩展较多,东南方向成为新的扩展热点,且表现出明显的距离衰减特征;4)城市蔓延主要受到人口与经济增长、交通条件改善、政策变化及土地制度缺陷等因素的影响,其中交通设施起到重要的空间引导作用。

非洲汉语教学问题探讨——以坦桑尼亚达累斯萨拉姆大学孔子学院为例

中非友谊源远流长,最早可追溯到2000多年前的西汉,但中国对非的汉语教学历史却不长,只有短短的几十年。随着孔子学院在非洲各国的开办,汉语传播的进程大大加快,但在非洲传播汉语仍面临诸多问题,如中非文化差异、教学设施落后、汉语推广的局限性、本土化程度不高、多语种并存、对孔子学院的误解等。作者以坦桑尼亚达累斯萨拉姆大学孔子学院为例,就如何提高汉语教学质量提出自己的见解,如孔子学院应做到"四个统一";建立良好的师生关系;汉字与拼音并举;知识性与趣味性相结合;学习当地语言;定期检查作业和考教结合,以考促教。

孔子学院学生汉语学习动机与教学策略研究——以达累斯萨拉姆大学孔子学院为例

使用国外流行的语言学习策略量表(SILL)对达累斯萨拉姆大学孔子学院学生汉语学习策略进行调查,探讨了他们的汉语学习策略使用情况。研究表明,达累斯萨拉姆大学孔子学院学生在学习汉语时使用社交策略、元认知策略多,使用补偿策略、感情策略少,对外汉语教师应在充分考虑学习者的学习动机与策略之后,在课堂设置、情感交流、学习策略干预等方面采取适当教学策略,以达到理想的教学效果。

知识史视角下中国1950-1970年代援外建筑的美学与政治

回顾中国1950-1970年代对外援助及援外建筑的发展历程,关注援外建筑形式美学及其政治意义的关联,旨在以建筑学思维解读对外援助"中国模式"的内涵与意义。以知识史视角梳理援外建筑设计知识体系的发展演进与跨国流动脉络,重点关注1964-1976年间西方现代主义建筑思潮对中国援外建筑的影响。以坦赞铁路达累斯萨拉姆总站为主要案例,通过历史研究、形式分析以及跨文化比较分析,揭示中国援外建筑在美学和政治方面呈现的"中国性",并讨论新中国援外建筑作为知识遗产的当代价值。

浅谈超高层综合体的实践——坦桑尼亚达累斯萨拉姆综合体

超高层综合体建筑是由商业和办公、酒店、公寓等多种功能空间组合而成的,并且将休憩、工作、娱乐、居住等功能需求有机、有序地融入一栋建筑之中。超高层综合体建筑的发展在当今人口增加、土地可使用开发面积匮乏的情况下,是大势所趋,是一种最佳的解决方案。设计得当,不仅能有效利用土地资源,并且可以成为城市的地标性建筑,是城市发展中极为重要的一环,是构成城市结构网络的关键骨架。