Physical Reality and Essence of Imaginary Numbers in Astrophysics: Dark Matter, Dark Energy, Dark Space

Dark matter and dark energy phenomenon which has been totally incomprehensible until very recently is explained by existence, besides our Universe, other invisible parallel universes in the hidden Multiverse. Such explanation of dark matter and dark energy phenomenon in astrophysics has become possible only after proving of the principle of physical reality of imaginary numbers discovered in mathematics 500 years ago. And the principle of physical reality of imaginary numbers has made the postulate of light speed non-exceedance in the special theory of relativity unnecessary. Therefore,?all relativistic formulas in this theory should be adjusted. As follows from the adjusted relativistic formulas, we live in Multiverse rather than in Monoverse. All parallel universes of the Multiverse are mutually invisible, therefore Multiverse is called hidden. WMAP and Planck data analysis has showed that the hidden Multiverse has a quaternion structure and contains 20?-?22 parallel universes, of which 5?-?6 are adjacent to our universe, and others are further. And these parallel universes are linked by unidirectional and bidirectional portals. Some portals link the hidden Multiverse with other Multiverses, which form a dark space. The multiverses of dark space together with the hidden Multiverse form Hyperverse.

Explanation of Dark Matter, Dark Energy and Dark Space: Discovery of Invisible Universes

Theoretical and experimental studies of special processes in linear electric circuits have proved the principle of physical reality of imaginary numbers discovered 500 years ago. This principle of physical reality of imaginary numbers has allowed astrophysics to prove the existence of invisible parallel universes and explain the phenomena of dark matter, dark energy and dark space associated therewith. Physical entities corresponding to imaginary, complex and hypercomplex numbers in the other exact sciences together form an invisible and still unknown world that is to be learned by science of the future.

Discovery of Dark Space

It is currently a generally accepted opinion in astrophysics that the phenomenon of dark matter and dark energy can be explained only by existence of microcosm contents unknown to us. This assumption seems to be quite reasonable, since the Monoverse hypothesis following from the postulate about non-exceedance of the speed of light in the special theory of relativity, leaves no place for dark matter and dark energy in macrocosm. However, the assumption is erroneous, as dark matter and dark energy are actually invisible parallel universes in six-dimensional space, as shown in the article. Therefore, they can be detected only during research of macrocosm. Research of the phenomenon of dark matter and dark energy is presented in the article. Moreover, it is performed using previously unknown experiments that have allowed proof of general scientific principle of physical reality of concrete imaginary numbers. In the special theory of relativity, this principle has refuted the postulate of light speed non-exceedance. It has also allowed adjustment of relativistic formulas. It follows from the adjusted relativistic formulas that we live in a hidden Multiverse. The article explains the nature of mutual invisibility of parallel universes of the hidden Multiverse and proves verifiability of the hypothesis of the hidden Multiverse. The hypothesis has explained the nature of dark matter and dark energy as well as given an idea where antimatter is and why it does not annihilate with matter. It has also explained where tachyons are and why they do not violate the principle of causality. According to the hypothesis, the hidden Multiverse is connected to other Multiverses through portals, forming dark space. Multiverses of dark space together with the hidden Multiverse form a Hyperverse.

Are James Webb Space Telescope Observations Consistent with Warm Dark Matter?

We compare observed with predicted distributions of galaxy stellar masses M* and galaxy rest-frame ultra-violet luminosities per unit bandwidth LUV, in the redshift range z=2 to 13. The comparison is presented as a function of the comoving warm dark matter free-streaming cut-off wavenumber kfs. For this comparison the theory is a minimal extension of the Press-Schechter formalism with only two parameters: the star formation efficiency, and a proportionality factor between the star formation rate per galaxy and LUV. These two parameters are fixed to their values obtained prior to the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) data. The purpose of this comparison is to identify if, and where, detailed astrophysical evolution is needed to account for the new JWST observations.

New Approach to Synchronize General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics with Constant “K”-Resulting Dark Matter as a New Fundamental Force Particle

Planck scale plays a vital role in describing fundamental forces. Space time describes strength of fundamental force. In this paper, Einstein’s general relativity equation has been described in terms of contraction and expansion forces of space time. According to this, the space time with Planck diameter is a flat space time. This is the only diameter of space time that can be used as signal transformation in special relativity. This space time diameter defines the fundamental force which belongs to that space time. In quantum mechanics, this space time diameter is only the quantum of space which belongs to that particular fundamental force. Einstein’s general relativity equation and Planck parameters of quantum mechanics have been written in terms of equations containing a constant “K”, thus found a new equation for transformation of general relativity space time in to quantum space time. In this process of synchronization, there is a possibility of a new fundamental force between electromagnetic and gravitational forces with Planck length as its space time diameter. It is proposed that dark matter is that fundamental force carrying particle. By grand unification equation with space-time diameter, we found a coupling constant as per standard model “αs” for that fundamental force is 1.08 × 10-23. Its energy calculated as 113 MeV. A group of experimental scientists reported the energy of dark matter particle as 17 MeV. Thorough review may advance science further.

Accelerated Expansion of Space, Dark Matter, Dark Energy and Big Bang Processes

The accelerated expansion of our universe results from properties of dark matter particles deduced from Space-Time Quantization. This theory accounts for all possible elementary particles by considering a quantum of length a in addition to c and h. It appears that dark matter particles allow for fusion and fission processes. The resulting equilibrium enables the cosmic dark matter gas to produce dark energy in an adaptive way. It keeps the combined matter-energy density at a constant level, even when space is expanding. This accounts for the cosmological constant Λand the accelerated expansion of space without requiring any negative pressure. The Big Bang is related to G, c, h and a. It started with a “primeval photon” and led to the cosmic matter-antimatter asymmetry as well as inflation.

The Space Structure, Force Fields, and Dark Matter

It is proposed that the digital space structure consists of attachment space (denoted as 1) for rest mass and detachment space (denoted as 0) for kinetic energy. Attachment space attaches to object permanently with zero speed, and detachment space detaches from the object at the speed of light. The combination of attachment space and detachment space brings about the three structures: binary lattice space, miscible space, and binary partition space. Binary lattice space, (1 0)n, consists of repetitive units of alternative attachment space and detachment space. In miscible space, attachment space is miscible to detachment space without separation. Binary partition space, (1)n(0)n, consists of separated continuous phases of attachment space and detachment space. Binary lattice space, miscible space, and binary partition space constitute quantum mechanics, special relativity, and the extreme force fields, respectively. Through the detachment space, a higher dimensional particle in attachment space is sliced into infinitely surrounding a lower dimensional core attachment space, resulting in a particle surrounding by gauge field in the form of binary lattice space. The 10d particle can be sliced into 9d, 8d, 7d, 6d, 5d, and 4d particles equally by mass, corresponding to baryonic particle as 4d and dark matter as other 5 particles, so the ratio between baryonic matter and dark matter is 1 to 5, in agreement with the observed ratio. At extreme conditions, such as extremely low temperature, the gauge force field in the form of binary lattice space is transformed into the extreme force field in the form of binary partition space to explain extreme phenomena, such as superconductivity.

A Model of the Universe that Can Explain Dark Matter, Dark Energy, and the Fourth Space Dimension

This paper explains how a model of the universe can be constructed by incorporating time and space into geometry in a unique way to produce a 4-space dimension/1-time dimension model. The model can then show how dark matter can be the gravity that is produced by real matter that exists throughout our entire universe. The model can also show how dark energy is not an increase in energy that is causing the accelerated expansion of the universe, but is an accelerating decrease in matter throughout the universe as the stars and galaxies in the universe continue to convert matter into energy during their life cycles. And then the model can show how a fourth space dimension must exist in our universe to locate a point in space.

S Bosons and Dark Particles of Space Field

The spacetime lattice model involves time lattice (static lattice) model and space lattice (dynamic lattice) model, both of which have the same lattices’ domains and the same fractal structures. The behaviors of the space field obey the uncertainty relations, which gauge invariance shows the space field is a gauge field, making the electromagnetic field, gravitowagnetic field and the fermion field be gauged, and the Lorentz condition and Lorentz gauge are the intrinsic attributes of the spacetime. The quantization of the classical space field produces S bosons of spin-1, which stimulated states by charges and masses are respectively photons and gravitons. The S bosons in thermal excitation are immeasurable and their energies may be dark. The principle of partition of independent freedom degrees regularizes the degrees for all particles including neutrino, which must have mass. By the S bosons, we interpret newly the virtual photons. Using the spacetime lattice model, we investigate the breaking of the symmetry of the gradient fields and the symmetry of the curl fields for the potential functions of the space field, and the creations and the annihilations of the dark photons and the dark gravitons. The complexity requires us to rename the electroweak phase transition as electro-gravito-weak phase transition. Finally, antiparticles are discussed. Our approach for the lattice models is a kind of renormalization group theory, signifying the breaking of symmetries can be renormalized.

How Flat Space Cosmology Models Dark Energy

Equations of Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) are utilized to characterize the model’s scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. A table relating cosmic age, cosmological redshift, and the temporal FSC Hubble parameter value is created. The resulting graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of cosmological (or galactic) redshift has a particularly interesting sinuous shape. This graph greatly resembles what ΛCDM proponents have been expecting for a scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. And yet, the FSC Rh = ct model expansion, by definition, neither decelerates nor accelerates. It may well be that apparent early cosmic deceleration and late cosmic acceleration both ultimately prove to be illusions produced by a constant-velocity, linearly-expanding, FSC universe. Furthermore, as discussed herein, the FSC model would appear to strongly support Freedman et al. in the current Hubble tension debate, if approximately 14 Gyrs can be assumed to be the current cosmic age.

From Yang-Mills Photon in Curved Spacetime to Dark Energy Density

We start from quantum field theory in curved spacetime to derive a new Einstein-like energy mass relation of the type E=γmc2 where γ=1/22 is a Yang-Mills Lorentzian factor, m is the mass and c is the velocity of light. Although quantum field in curved spacetime is not a complete quantum gravity theory, our prediction here of 95.4545% dark energy missing in the cosmos is almost in complete agreement with the WMAP and supernova measurements. Finally, it is concluded that the WMAP and type 1a supernova 4.5% measured energy is the ordinary energy density of the quantum particle while the 95.5% missing dark energy is the energy density of the quantum wave. Recalling that measurement leads to quantum wave collapse, it follows that dark energy as given by E(D) = mc2 (21/22) cannot be detected using conventional direct measurement although its antigravity effect is manifested through the increasing rather than decreasing speed of cosmic expansion.

Essence of Photons and Dark Matters

What exactly are photons and dark matter? Modern physical theories do not explain them very well. In this paper, by extending the law of electromagnetic oscillation, the space particles and their operation law can also be obtained. The system of space particle theory is formed under the law of physics. The conclusion of the theory of space particles is quite consistent with many physical phenomena. There are no contradictions that can be found. According to the theory of space particles, there is an uneven space at the edge of an object, which has been proved by a series of experimental phenomena. The theory of space particles has revealed the essence of photons and dark matter. It has also revealed the relationship between space, mass, and energy. Space is a physical phenomenon.

From Space-Time Quantization to Dark Matter

We generalize relativistic quantum mechanics and the Standard Model of elementary particle physics by considering a finite limit for the smallest measurable length. The resulting theory of Space-Time Quantization is logically consistent and accounts for all possible particle states by means of four new quantum numbers. They specify possible variations of wave functions at the smallest possible scale in space and time, while states of motion are defined by their large-scale variations. This theory also provides insight into the nature and properties of dark matter particles. It can facilitate their detection and identification because of a very strict conservation law.

Einstein’s General Relativity and Pure Gravity in a Cosserat and De Sitter-Witten Spacetime Setting as the Explanation of Dark Energy and Cosmic Accelerated Expansion

Ordinary energy and dark energy density are determined using a Cosserat-Cartan and killing-Yano reinterpretation of Einstein’s special and general relativity. Thus starting from a maximally symmetric space with 528 killing vector fields corresponding to Witten’s five Branes model in eleven dimensional M-theory we reason that 504 of the 528 are essentially the components of the relevant killing-Yano tensor. In turn this tensor is related to hidden symmetries and torsional coupled stresses of the Cosserat micro-polar space as well as the Einstein-Cartan connection. Proceeding in this way the dark energy density is found to be that of Einstein’s maximal energy mc2 where m is the mass and c is the speed of light multiplied with a Lorentz factor equal to the ratio of the 504 killing-Yano tensor and the 528 states maximally symmetric space. Thus we have E (dark) = mc2 (504/528) = mc2 (21/22) which is about 95.5% of the total maximal energy density in astounding agreement with COBE, WMAP and Planck cosmological measurements as well as the type 1a supernova analysis. Finally theory and results are validated via a related theory based on the degrees of freedom of pure gravity, the theory of nonlocal elasticity as well as ‘t Hooft-Veltman renormalization method.

A Quantum Space Model of Cosmic Evolution: Dark Energy and the Cyclic Universe

We present a Quantum Space Model (QSM) of cosmic evolution based on the theory that space consists of energy quanta from which our universe came about. We used the Friedmann equations to trace its history and predict its ultimate fate. Results provide further support to our recent proposal that the accelerating expansion of the universe is due to a scalar space field which has become known as Dark Energy. In our model, the universe started from high energy space quanta which were triggered by quantum fluctuations that caused the Big Bang. It then expanded and cooled undergoing phase transitions to radiation, fundamental particles, and matter. Matter agglomerated and grew into stars, galaxies, etc. and was eventually consolidated by gravity into Black Holes, which finally ended in a Big Crunch in a state of deep freeze inside the Black hole at 1.380 trillion years. Fluctuations, quantum tunneling, or some other mechanisms caused a new Bang to start another cycle in its life. Our results are in good agreement with the theoretical predictions of a cyclic universe by Steinhardt and his associates, and by Penrose. Space and energy are equivalent as embodied in the Planck energy equation. They give rise to the two principal long range forces in the universe: the gravitational force and the space force. The latter may be the fifth force in the universe. The two forces could provide the clockwork mechanism operating our cyclic universe. If the Law of Conservation of Energy is universal, then the cosmos is eternal.

How Dark Energy Might Be Produced by Black Holes

If confirmed, the new galactic observations in support of rapidly growing supermassive black holes in association with their production of dark energy may provide for a quantum leap forward in our understanding of black holes, dark energy, and universal expansion. The primary implication of these observations is that growth of black holes may well be coupled with universal expansion (“cosmological coupling”). Study of the Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model, in conjunction with these new observations, suggests a novel mechanism of “black hole dark energy radiation”. This brief note gives a rationale for how the high gravitational energy density vacuum within or adjacent to a black hole horizon could be sufficiently energetic to pull entangled pairs of positive matter energy particles and negative dark energy “particles” of equal magnitude out of the horizon vacuum and send them off in opposite directions (i.e., gravitationally-attractive matter inward and gravitationally-repelling dark energy outward). One effect would be that a black hole can rapidly grow in mass-energy without mergers or the usual accretion of pre-existing matter. A second effect would be continual production of dark energy within the cosmic vacuum, fueling a continuous and finely-tuned light-speed expansion of the universe.

基于夜空保护理念的城市滨水绿地暗夜景观质量评价体系的构建研究

为保护璀璨星空的夜间自然资源和打造近人尺度的城市滨水绿地景观光环境,基于层次分析法,结合夜空保护理念,对城市滨水绿地暗夜景观质量评价指标进行筛选和权重计算。结果表明:(1)准则层的权重排序为优质户外照明B3(0.3714)>星空品质B1(0.3197)>夜间环境B2(0.3089)。(2)指标层中防眩光的总权重高于其他评价指标。(3)各指标层中重要性程度最高和最低分别是:B1中夜间灯光指数C2(0.1720)、滨水视域开阔度C3(0.0177);B2中滨水绿地生态保护性C7(0.1729)、标识可识别性C6(0.0167);B3中防眩光C12(0.2361)、照明能耗与智能控制C10(0.0252)。该评价体系旨在为今后暗夜景观的定量评价、城市夜间光环境规划建设和保护发展提供理论和方法上的研究参考。

Dark Matter: The Source of Space and Time

A simple assumption for dark matter leads to magnetic-monopole-like terms to Maxwell’s Equations, a photon model with wave-particle duality, nuclear stability, a decelerating expansion of the universe, and a dark-matter relativity that defines the origin of space and time.

Predicted Dark Matter Quantitation in Flat Space Cosmology

The purpose of this paper is to show how the dark matter predictions of FSC differ with respect to the standard cosmology assertion of a universal dark matter-to-visible matter ratio of approximately 5.3-to-1. FSC predicts the correct ratio to be approximately 9-to-1, based primarily on the universal observations of global spatial flatness in the context of general relativity. The FSC Friedmann equations incorporating a Lambda?Λ?cosmological term clearly indicate that a spatially flat universe must have equality of the positive curvature (matter mass-energy) and negative curvature (dark energy) density components. Thus, FSC predicts that observations of the Milky Way and the nearly co-moving galaxies within 100 million light years will prove the 5.3-to-1 ratio to be incorrect. The most recent galactic and perigalactic observations indicate a range of dark matter-to-visible matter ratios varying from essentially zero (NGC 1052-DF2) to approximately 23-to-1 (Milky Way). The latter ratio is simply astonishing and promises an exciting next few years for astrophysicists and cosmologists. Within the next few years, the mining of huge data bases (especially the Gaia catalogue and Hubble data) will resolve whether standard cosmology will need to change its current claims for the cosmic energy density partition to be more in line with FSC, or whether FSC is falsified. A prediction is that standard cosmology must eventually realize the necessity of resolving the tension between their flatness observations and their assertion of dark energy dominance. The author makes the further prediction that FSC will soon become the new paradigm in cosmology.

Structure of Space Fabric

This paper first proposes that a physical entity such as an electron and a cosmological entity such as a photon belong to two different levels of the Universe. When declaring that space is a vacuum, we are referring to the physical vacuum, and not the cosmological vacuum. The paper propounds that the space we observe is a fabric of cosmological substances. We cannot presume that something fills the emptiness of space. This paper posits that the fab-ric of cosmological substances creates this emptiness to facilitate physical activities such as electromagnetic waves and gravitational pull. Second, the space fabric is a spatial cosmo-logical phenomenon, whereas time is a physical phenomenon operated by a physical entity. The spacetime continuum is created by physical time acquiring the cosmological space fab-ric. The third part of this paper explains the structure and ingredients of the space fabric. The structure itself explains several cosmological phenomena, including electromagnetic waves, gravitation, light, magnetism, dark matter, and dark energy. The philosophical cor-rectness of the paper is validated through the unification of multidisciplinary aspects, and its scientific correctness is validated by its logical consistency with the results of well-known experiments.