Deformation behaviors of 21-6-9 stainless steel tube numerical control bending under different friction conditions

For contact dominated numerical control(NC) bending process of tube, the effect of friction on bending deformation behaviors should be focused on to achieve precision bending forming. A three dimensional(3D) elastic-plastic finite element(FE) model of NC bending process was established under ABAQUS/Explicit platform, and its reliability was validated by the experiment. Then, numerical study on bending deformation behaviors under different frictions between tube and various dies was explored from multiple aspects such as wrinkling, wall thickness change and cross section deformation. The results show that the large friction of wiper die-tube reduces the wrinkling wave ratio η and cross section deformation degree ΔD and increases the wall thinning degree Δt. The large friction of mandrel-tube causes large η, Δt and ΔD, and the onset of wrinkling near clamp die. The large friction of pressure die-tube reduces Δt and ΔD, and the friction on this interface has little effect on η. The large friction of bending die-tube reduces η and ΔD, and the friction on this interface has little effect on Δt. The reasonable friction coefficients on wiper die-tube, mandrel-tube, pressure die-tube and bending die-tube of 21-6-9(0Cr21Ni6Mn9N) stainless steel tube in NC bending are 0.05-0.15, 0.05-0.15, 0.25-0.35 and 0.25-0.35, respectively. The results can provide a guideline for applying the friction conditions to establish the robust bending environment for stable and precise bending deformation of tube bending.

Variation in Deformation Behaviors Along the Transverse Direction During the Warm Rolling of a 1480-mm-Wide AZ31B Plate

A decrease in the weight of aerospace vehicles,large ships,weapons,and high-speed trains will increase the demand for wide-width magnesium alloy plates and their composite parts to replace steel and plastic.An investigation was conducted to study the variation in deformation behaviors along the transverse direction during the warm rolling of a 1480-mm-wide AZ31B plate.A uniaxial thermal compression test with a 59%reduction was performed at different positions on a 13.7-mm-thick rolled plate along the width direction at a temperature of 220℃ and 270℃ and strain rate of 15 s^(−1).At the same time,the 13.7-mm-thick plate was rolled in a single pass to 5.6 mm on a mill with a 1725-mm-wide roll to confirm the thermal deformation behavior and the dynamic recrystallization(DRX).The results show that the main texture type does not change and the grain size does not have a clear deflection when the magnesium alloy plate reaches a certain value under rolling accumulative reduction.The grain size of a 13.7-mm-thick plate increases with a decrease in the distance to the center layer in the thickness direction.In the width direction,the edge(R6)first decreases and then increases toward the symmetric plane(R1).The critical stress required for dynamic recrystallization in the transition zone R3 of the rolled plate width is minimum,and the average grain size is minimum owing to the relatively complete recrystallization.

Heterogeneous Deformation Behaviors of an Inertia Friction Welded Ti_(2)AlNb Joint:an In‑situ Study

A defect-free Ti_(2)AlNb joint has been obtained by the inertia friction welding(IFW)technology.The weld zone(WZ)is composed of B2 grains refined by discontinuous dynamic recrystallization and enhanced by grain refinement strengthening.And the average microhardness decreases by about 30 HV from the WZ to the base metal.In-situ SEM analysis reveals that the heterogeneous structure of the joint causes strong strain partitioning during tensile deformation.The microcrack initiation occurs at the interface of the initial B2 phases and B2/O boundaries.Owing to stress concentration,the multi-slip bands and cracks tend to generate in the heat-affected zone(HAZ),causing a premature fracture.

Effect of Gd Addition on Hot Deformation Behavior and Microstructure Evolution of 7075 Aluminum Alloy

In order to clarify the effect of rare earth Gd on the microstructure evolution and deformation behavior of 7075 aluminum alloy during hot compression,uniaxial compression tests of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-0.5%Gd were conducted at strain rates of 0.001,0.01,0.1,and 1 s^(-1)with the temperatures ranging from 350 to 450℃.The microstructural evolution during deformation was characterized using optical microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)techniques.The experimental results indicate that the addition of the rare earth element Gd significantly increases the peak flow stress and thermal activation energy of the alloy.Due to the pinning effect of rare earth phases,dislocation movement is hindered,leading to an increased level of work hardening in the alloy.However,the dynamic recrystallization of the alloy is complicated.At a high Z(Zener-Hollomon parameter)values,recrystallization occurs in the form of DDRX(Discontinuous Dynamic Recrystallization),making it easier to nucleate at grain boundaries.As the Z value decreases gradually,the recrystallization mechanism transitions from discontinuous dynamic recrystallization(DDRX)to continuous dynamic recrystallization(CDRX).At a low Z values with the strain rate of 0.001 s^(-1),the inhibitory effect of rare earths weakens,resulting in a comparable recrystallization ratio between Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Gd alloy and 7075 aluminum alloy.Moreover,the average grain size of the aluminum alloy with Gd addition is only half that of 7075 aluminum.The addition of Gd provides Orowan and substructure strengthening for the alloy,which greatly improves the work-hardening of the alloy compared with 7075 aluminum alloy and improves the strength of the alloy.

Hot Compressive Deformation Characteristics of Al-9.3Zn-2.4Mg-1.1Cu Alloy

To understand the hot compression deformation characteristics of the self-developed Al-9.3Zn-2.4Mg^(-1).1Cu alloy,the hot compression tests of Al-9.3Zn-2.4Mg^(-1).1Cu alloy were investigated by Gleeble 1500 thermo-mechanical simulator to determine the best hot processing conditions.The hot deformation temperatures were 300,350,400,and 450℃,and the strain rates were 1,0.1,0.01,and 0.003 s^(-1),respectively.Based on the experimental results,the constitutive equation and hot processing maps are established,and the corresponding strain rate and temperature-sensitive index are analyzed.The results show that Al-9.3Zn-2.4Mg^(-1).1Cu alloy has a dynamic softening trend and high strain rate sensitivity during the isothermal compression process.The hot deformation behavior can be described by an Arrhenius-type equation after strain compensation.The temperature has a negligible effect on the hot processing properties,while a low strain rate is favorable for the hot working of alloy.The processing maps and microstructure show that the optimal processing conditions were in the temperature range of 400-450℃and strain rate range of 0.003-0.005 s^(-1).

Prediction of Hot Deformation Behavior of 7Mo Super Austenitic Stainless Steel Based on Back Propagation Neural Network

The hot compression tests of 7Mo super austenitic stainless(SASS)were conducted to obtain flow curves at the temperature of 1000-1200℃and strain rate of 0.001 s^(-1)to 1 s^(-1).To predict the non-linear hot deformation behaviors of the steel,back propagation-artificial neural network(BP-ANN)with 16×8×8 hidden layer neurons was proposed.The predictability of the ANN model is evaluated according to the distribution of mean absolute error(MAE)and relative error.The relative error of 85%data for the BP-ANN model is among±5%while only 42.5%data predicted by the Arrhenius constitutive equation is in this range.Especially,at high strain rate and low temperature,the MAE of the ANN model is 2.49%,which has decreases for 18.78%,compared with conventional Arrhenius constitutive equation.

Deformation behaviors of four-layered U-shaped metallic bellows in hydroforming

Because of the complex constraint effects among layers in multi-layered metallic bellows hydroforming,the stress concentration and defects such as wrinkling and fracture may easily occur.It is a key to reveal the deformation behaviors in order to obtain a sound product.Based on the ABAQUS platform,a 3 D-FE model of the four-layered U-shaped metallic bellow hydroforming process is established and validated by experiment.The stress and strain distributions,wall thickness variations and bellow profiles of each layer in the whole process,including bulging,folding and springback stages,are studied.Then deformation behaviors of bellows under different forming conditions are discussed.It is found that the wall thinning degrees of different layer vary after hydroforming,and is the largest for the inner layer and smallest for the outer layer.At folding stage,the wall thinning degree of the crown point increases lineally,and the difference among layers increases as the process going.The displacements of the crown point decrease from the inner layer to the outer layer.After springback,the U-shaped cross section changes to a tongue shape,the change of convolution pitch is much larger than the change of convolution height,and the springback values of the inner layer are smaller than the outer layer.An increase in the internal pressure and die spacing cause the maximum wall thinning degree and springback increase.With changing of process parameters,bellows with deep convolution are easily encountered wall thinning during hydroforming and convolution distortion after springback.This research is helpful for precision forming of multi-layered bellows.

Deformation Behaviors of an Additive-Manufactured Ni_(32)Co_(30)Cr_(10)Fe_(10)Al_(18)Eutectic High Entropy Alloy at Ambient and Elevated Temperatures

Eutectic high-entropy alloys(EHEAs)that have superior formability are attractive for direct laser deposition technology.In this study,a regular-shaped bulk Ni_(32)Co_(30)Cr_(10)Fe_(10)Al_(18)EHEA without apparent pores and micro-cracks was successfully fabricated by direct laser deposition.The as-deposited alloy showed a high tensile strength of 1.3 GPa with a ductility of 35%at ambient temperature and a tensile strength of 320 MPa at 760℃.The deformation mechanisms of the as-deposited alloy at ambient and elevated temperatures were investigated by coupling the in-situ tensile test with a scanning electron microscope.It is revealed that the excellent combination of strength and ductility originated from the synergic effects of the FCC and B2 phases in eutectic lamellae.And the generation of cracks along phase boundaries restricted its high-temperature strength above 760℃.

Hot Deformation Behaviors of S31042 Austenitic Heat-Resistant Steel

The hot deformation behavior of S31042 austenitic heat-resistant steel was investigated over the tempera- ture range of 900--1 200 ℃ and strain rate range of 0.01--10 s- 1 using hot compression tests and the corresponding flow curves were obtained. The hot deformation activation energy of the test steel is 625 kJ/mol. The hot deformation equation and the relationship between the peak stresses, deformation temperature and strain rate were set up. The Zener-Hollomon parameter under various conditions was determined. The relation between the Zener-Hollomon parameter and the microstructure evolution of test steel was discussed. With the decrease of Zener-Hollomon param- eter, the microstructure of test steel transforms from deformation instability to dynamic recovery, partial dynamic recrystallization, full dynamic recrystallization with equiaxial structure, and finally to full dynamic recrystaUization with mixed crystal structure. The deformation condition can be adjusted easily by utilizing the Zener-Hollomon pa- rameter to obtain equiaxial microstructure.

Effect of carrier gas species on the microstructure and compressive deformation behaviors of ultra-strong pure copper manufactured by cold spray additive manufacturing

Cold spray(CS)which has recently become a promising additive manufacturing(AM)technology,was used to fabricate ultra-strong pure copper.In addition,the effects of carrier gas species on the microstructural characteristics,mechanical properties and deformation mechanisms were systemically explored.The CSAM copper manufactured with N_(2) carrier gas reveals a heterogeneous bimodal microstructure consisting of ultra-fine grains at the particle interface and relatively coarse grains in inner particles.With He carrier gas,a homogeneous grain structure consisting of ultra-fine grains in most areas was obtained.Compressive tests showed that N_(2) and He carrier gasses enabled ultra-high yield strengths of 340 and415 MPa,respectively.These values are comparable to severely plastic deformed copper,which has extremely low ductility and shape fidelity.On the other hand,both samples showed a strain-softening phenomenon that does not commonly occur at room temperature.The deformation microstructures revealed that dynamic recovery(DRV)and dynamic recrystallization(DRX)phenomena were generated despite being deformed at room temperature.Based on the above findings,the overall deformation mechanisms according to the carrier gas species in the CSAM copper manufacturing process were discussed.Furthermore,the work hardening and softening behaviors of CSAM Cu are predicted by using a constitutive equation.

Insights into microstructural evolution and deformation behaviors of a gradient textured AZ31B Mg alloy plate under hypervelocity impact

We have for the first time elucidated the microstructural evolution and deformation behaviors of a gradient textured AZ31 B Mg alloy plate under the ultrahigh strain rate of ~10~6 s^(-1) that is generated by a two-stage light gas gun with the hypervelocities of 1.6-4.4 km s^(-1). The hypervelocity impact cratering behaviors indicate that the cratering deformation of AZ31 B Mg alloy is mainly affected by the inertia and strength of the target material. The crater prediction equation of AZ31 B Mg alloy target under impact velocity of 5 km s^(-1) is given. The 2017 Al projectile completely melts in the Mg alloy target plate at the impact velocities of 3.8 km s^(-1) and 4.4 km s^(-1), and the microstructural evolution around the crater is: dynamic recrystallization zone, high-density twinning zone, low-density twinning zone, and Mg alloy matrix. It is found that the dynamic recrystallization, twinning and cracking are the main deformation behaviors for the AZ31 B Mg alloy to absorb the shock wave energy and release the stress generated by the hypervelocity impact. The main plastic deformation mechanisms of the Mg alloy target during hypervelocity impact are twinning and dislocation slip. Microstructure analysis shows the interactions of twins-twins, dislocations-dislocations, and twins-dislocations determine the strain hardening during the hypervelocity impact process, which eventually contributes the dynamic mechanical properties. The evolution of microhardness around the crater further demonstrates the microstructural evolutions and their interactions under the hypervelocity impacts.

Hot deformation behavior of novel high-strength Mg-0.6Mn-0.5Al-0.5Zn-0.4Ca alloy

The hot compression behavior of as-extruded Mg-0.6Mn-0.5Al-0.5Zn-0.4Ca alloy was studied on a Gleeble-3500 thermal simulation machine.Experiments were conducted at temperatures ranging from 523 to 673 K and strain rates ranging from 0.001 to 1 s^(-1).Results showed that an increase in the strain rate or a decrease in deformation temperature led to an increase in true stress.The constitutive equation and processing maps of the alloy were obtained and analyzed.The influence of deformation temperatures and strain rates on microstructural evolution and texture was studied with the assistance of electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD).The as-extruded alloy exhibited a bimodal structure that consisted of deformed coarse grains and fine equiaxed recrystallized structures(approximately 1.57μm).The EBSD results of deformed alloy samples revealed that the recrystallization degree and average grain size increased as the deformation temperature increased.By contrast,dislocation density and texture intensity decreased.Compressive texture weakened with the increase in the deformation temperature at the strain rate of 0.01 s-1.Most grains with{0001}planes tilted away from the compression direction(CD)gradually.In addition,when the strain rate decreased,the recrystallization degree and average grain size increased.Meanwhile,the dislocation density decreased.Texture appeared to be insensitive to the strain rate.These findings provide valuable insights into the hot compression behavior,microstructural evolution,and texture changes in the Mg-0.6Mn-0.5Al-0.5Zn-0.4Ca alloy,contributing to the understanding of its processing-microstructure-property relationships.

Deformation critical threshold estimation of Xiaowan ultrahigh arch dam with time-varying grey model

The structural behavior of the Xiaowan ultrahigh arch dam is primarily influenced by external loads and time-varying characteristics of dam concrete and foundation rock mass during long-term operation. According to overload testing with a geological model and the measured time series of installed perpendicular lines, the space and time evolution characteristics of the arch dam structure were analyzed, and its mechanical performance was evaluated. Subsequently, the deformation centroid of the deflective curve was suggested to indicate the magnitude and unique distribution rules for a typical dam section using the measured deformation values at multi-monitoring points. The ellipse equations of the critical ellipsoid for the centroid were derived from the historical measured time series. Hydrostatic and seasonal components were extracted from the measured deformation values with a traditional statistical model, and residuals were adopted as a grey component. A time-varying grey model was developed to accurately predict the evolution of the deformation behavior of the ultrahigh arch dam during future operation. In the developed model, constant coefficients were modified so as to be time-dependent functions, and the prediction accuracy was significantly improved through introduction of a forgetting factor. Finally, the critical threshold was estimated, and predicted ellipsoids were derived for the Xiaowan arch dam. The findings of this study can provide technical support for safety evaluation of the actual operation of ultrahigh arch dams and help to provide early warning of abnormal changes.

Shear Deformation Behaviors of Sn3.5Ag Lead-free Solder Samples

In this study, shear tests have been performed on the as-reflowed Sn3.5Ag solder bumps and joints to investigate the deformation behavior of Sn3.5Ag lead-free solder samples. Scanning electron microscopy （SEM） was employed to characterize the microstructures of the samples and orientation imaging microscopy （OIM） with electron backscattered diffraction （EBSD） in SEM was used to obtain crystallographic orientation of grains to provide a detailed characterization of the deformation behavior in Sn3.5Ag solder samples after shear tests. The deformation behavior in solder samples under shear stress was discussed. The experimental results suggest that the dynamic recrystallization could occur under shear stress at room temperature and recrystallized grains should evolve from subgrains by rotation. Compared with that of non-recrystallized and as-reflowed microstructures, the microhardness of the recrystallized microstructure decreased after shear tests.

Hot deformation behavior and microstructure evolution of Be/2024Al composites

The high temperature compression test of Be/2024Al composites with 62wt%Be was conducted at 500–575℃ and strain rate of0.003–0.1 s^(-1).The strain-compensated Arrhenius model and modified Johnson–Cook model were introduced to predict the hot deformation behavior of Be/2024Al composites.The result shows that the activation energy of Be/2024Al composites was 363.364 k J·mol^(-1).Compared with composites reinforced with traditional ceramics,Be/2024Al composites can be deformed with ultra-high content of reinforcement,attributing to the deformable property of Be particles.The average relative error of the two models shows that modified Johnson–Cook model was more suitable for low temperature condition while strain-compensated Arrhenius model was more suitable for high temperature condition.The processing map was generated and a hot extrusion experiment was conducted according to the map.A comparation of the microstructure of Be/2024Al composites before and after extrusion shows that the Be particle deformed coordinately with the matrix and elongated at the extrusion direction.

High temperature deformation behavior and optimization of hot compression process parameters in TC11 titanium alloy with coarse lamellar original microstructure

The high temperature deformation behaviors of α＋β type titanium alloy TC11 （Ti-6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-0.3Si） with coarse lamellar starting microstructure were investigated based on the hot compression tests in the temperature range of 950-1100 ℃ and the strain rate range of 0.001-10 s-1. The processing maps at different strains were then constructed based on the dynamic materials model, and the hot compression process parameters and deformation mechanism were optimized and analyzed, respectively. The results show that the processing maps exhibit two domains with a high efficiency of power dissipation and a flow instability domain with a less efficiency of power dissipation. The types of domains were characterized by convergence and divergence of the efficiency of power dissipation, respectively. The convergent domain in a＋fl phase field is at the temperature of 950-990 ℃ and the strain rate of 0.001-0.01 s^-1, which correspond to a better hot compression process window of α＋β phase field. The peak of efficiency of power dissipation in α＋β phase field is at 950 ℃ and 0.001 s 1, which correspond to the best hot compression process parameters of α＋β phase field. The convergent domain in β phase field is at the temperature of 1020-1080 ℃ and the strain rate of 0.001-0.1 s^-l, which correspond to a better hot compression process window of β phase field. The peak of efficiency of power dissipation in ℃ phase field occurs at 1050 ℃ over the strain rates from 0.001 s^-1 to 0.01 s^-1, which correspond to the best hot compression process parameters of ,8 phase field. The divergence domain occurs at the strain rates above 0.5 s^-1 and in all the tested temperature range, which correspond to flow instability that is manifested as flow localization and indicated by the flow softening phenomenon in stress-- strain curves. The deformation mechanisms of the optimized hot compression process windows in a＋β and β phase fields are identified to be spheroidizing and dynamic recrystallizing controlled by self-diffusion mechanism, respectively. The microstructure observation of the deformed specimens in different domains matches very well with the optimized results.

Hot deformation behavior and processing maps of Mg-Zn-Cu-Zr magnesium alloy

The deformation behaviors of a new quaternary Mg-6Zn-1.5Cu-0.5Zr alloy at temperatures of 523-673 K and strain rates of 0.001-1 s-1 were studied by compressive tests using a Gleeble 3800 thermal-simulator.The results show that the flow stress increases as the deformation temperature decreases or as the strain rate increases.A strain-dependent constitutive equation and a feed-forward back-propagation artificial neural network were used to predict flow stress,which showed good agreement with experimental data.The processing map suggests that the domains of 643-673 K and 0.001-0.01 s-1 are corresponded to optimum conditions for hot working of the T4-treated Mg-6Zn-1.5Cu-0.5Zr alloy.

Analysis of deformation characteristic in multi-way loading forming process of aluminum alloy cross valve based on finite element model

The deformation characteristic in the forming process of aluminum alloy 7075 cross valve under multi-way loading was investigated by numerical simulation method. The results indicate that there exist 4 deformation patterns in the multi-way loading forming process of cross valve, such as forward extrusion, backward extrusion, forward-lateral extrusion and backward-lateral extrusion; one or several patterns occur at different forming stages depending on loading path. In general, the main deformation pattern is forward extrusion or backward extrusion at the initial stage; the main deformation pattern is backward extrusion at the intermediate stage, and the backward extrusion and forward-lateral extrusion occur at the final stage. In order to improve the cavity fill and reduce the forming defects, the lateral extrusion deformation should be increased at the initial and intermediate stages, and the forward extrusion deformation at the final forging stage should be reduced or avoided.

Grain statistics effect on deformation behavior in asymmetric rolling of pure copper foil by crystal plasticity finite element model

The grain statistics effect was investigated through asymmetric rolling of pure copper foil by a realistic polycrystalline aggregates model and crystal plasticity element finite model.A polycrystalline aggregate model was generated and a crystal plasticity-based finite element model was developed for each grain and the specimen as a whole.The crystal plasticity model itself is rate dependent and accounts for local dissipative hardening effects and the original orientation of each grain was generated based on the orientation distribution function（ODF）.The deformation behaviors,including inhomogeneous material flow,decrease of contact press and roll force with the increase of grain size for the constant size of specimens,were studied.It is revealed that when the specimens are composed of only a few grains across thickness,the grains with different sizes,shapes and orientations are unevenly distributed in the specimen and each grain plays a significant role in micro-scale plastic deformation and leads to inhomogeneous deformation and the scatter of experimental and simulation results.The slip system activity was examined and the predicted results are consistent with the surface layer model.The slip band is strictly influenced by the misorientation of neighbor grain with consideration of slip system activity.Furthermore,it is found that the decrease of roll force and the most active of slip system in surface grains are caused by the increase of free surface grain effect when the grain size is increased.The results of the physical experiment and simulation provide a basic understanding of micro-scaled plastic deformation behavior in asymmetric foil rolling.

Constitutive modeling of hot deformation behavior of X20Cr13 martensitic stainless steel with strain effect

Hot deformation behavior ofX20Cr13 martensitic stainless steel was investigated by conducting hot compression tests on Gleeble-1500D thermo-mechanical simulator at the temperature ranging from 1173 to 1423 K and the strain rate ranging from 0.001 to 10 s^-1. The material constants of a and n, activation energy Q and A were calculated as a function of strain by a fifth-order polynomial fit. Constitutive models incorporating deformation temperature, strain rate and strain were developed to model the hot deformation behavior of X20Cr13 martensitic stainless steel based on the Arrhenius equation. The predictable efficiency of the developed constitutive models of X20Cr13 martensitic stainless steel was analyzed by correlation coefficient and average absolute relative error which are 0.996 and 3.22%, respectively.