Comparative analysis of some selected macronutrients of soil in orange orchard and degraded forests in Chittagong Hill Tracts,Bangladesh

Status of organic carbon (C), total nitrogen (N), available potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) in three different depths (0-5 cm, 5-15 cm and 15?30 cm) on two hill slopes of 35% and 55% in orange orchard cultivated by the Mro tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) were evaluated and compared with those in degraded bush forests, through digging three profiles in each land use. The content of all the five nutrients was found to be higher in the soil of orange orchard than in the soil of forest. But the variation was not consistent for both the slopes. The content varied depth wise also, having the highest value in surface soil in case of both the land uses on both the slopes. A mean available K content was significantly higher in orange orchard than in forest on 55% slope, while it was lower on 35% slope. Surface soil contained the nutrients of K and Ca with the amount of 0.2905-mg·g^(-1) soil and 3.025-mg·g^(-1)soil respectively in the orchard, while 0.1934-mg·g^(-1) soil and 1.6083-mg·g^(-1) soil were respectively in the forest. Organic carbon and total nitrogen were found more or less similar in surface soil on both the land uses showing a slight difference. Available P was found only in orange orchard, and in forest it was too little in amount to detect by the spectrophotometer. The degraded forests were poor in nutrient content due to high rate of soil erosion, which would be possible to be improved by bringing it under tree cover as proved by the adaptation of orange orchard there.

Impact of forest governance and enforcement on deforestation and forest degradation at the district level:A study in West Bengal State,India

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme(UNEP),the world loses 1.0×106hm2forest land through deforestation annually.About 1.6×106people who depend on forests for livelihood are negatively affected by deforestation and forest degradation.The paper attempts to study the impact of forest governance,enforcement and socio-economic factors on deforestation and forest degradation at the local level in West Bengal State,India.The study was based on questionnaire survey data during 2020–2021 collected from three western districts(Purulia,Bankura,and Paschim Medinipur)where deforestation and poverty rates are higher than other districts in West Bengal State.The total number of selected villages was 29,and the total sample households were 693.A stratified random sampling technique was used to collect data,and a questionnaire was followed.Forest governance and enforcement indices were constructed using United Nation Development Programme(UNDP)methodology and a step-wise logistic regression model was used to identify the factors affecting deforestation and forest degradation.The result of this study showed that four factors(illegal logging,weak forest administration,encroachment,and poverty)are identified for the causes of deforestation and forest degradation.It is observed that six indices of forest governance(rule of law,transparency,accountability,participation,inclusiveness and equitability,and efficiency and effectiveness)are relatively high in Purulia District.Moreover,this study shows that Purulia and Bankura districts follow medium forest governance,while Paschim Medinipur District has poor forest governance.The enforcement index is found to be highest in Purulia District(0.717)and lowest for Paschim Medinipur District(0.257).Finally,weak forest governance,poor socio-economic conditions of the households,and weak enforcement lead to the deforestation and forest degradation in the study area.Therefore,governments should strengthen law enforcement and encourage sustainable forest certification schemes to combat illegal logging.

Analysis of soil moisture variation by forest cover structure in lower western Himalayas, India

Soil moisture affects various hydrological processes, including evapotranspiration, infiltration, and runoff. Forested areas in the lower western Himalaya in India constitute the headwater catchments for many hill streams and have experienced degradation in forest cover due to grazing, deforestation and other human activities. This change in forest cover is likely to alter the soil moisture regime and, consequently, flow regimes in streams. The effect of change in forest cover on soil moisture regimes of this dry region has not been studied through long term field observations. We monitored soil matric potentials in two small watersheds in the lower western Himalaya of India. The watersheds consisted of homogeneous land covers of moderately dense oak forest and moderately degraded mixed oak forest. Observations were recorded at three sites at three depths in each watershed at fortnightly intervals for a period of three years. The soil moisture contents derived from soil potential measurements were analyzed to understand the spatial, temporal and profile variations under the two structures of forest cover. The analysis revealed large variations in soil moisture storage at different sites and depths and also during different seasons in each watershed. Mean soil moisture storage during monsoon, winter and summer seasons was higher under dense forest than under degraded forest. Highest soil moisture content occurred at shallow soil profiles, decreasing with depth in both watersheds. A high positive correlation was found between tree density and soil moisture content. Mean soil moisture content over the entire study period was higher under dense forest than under degraded forest. This indicated a potential for soil water storage under well managed oak forest. Because soil water storage is vital for sustenance of low flows, attention is needed on the management of oak forests in the Himalayan region.

Biochar Production and Application in Forest Soils-A Critical Review

The increasing deforestation with an alarming rate is the prime cause of upsetting the balance in the natural ecosystem and the livelihood of local communities.Sustainable forest management and reforestation efforts can equilibrium this destruction and maintain the protected areas.In this regard,soil management strategies for reforestation of the degraded forest land can be helpful.In this review,the potential of using biochar,a solid carbon rich product of biomass thermochemical conversion,as a soil amendment in forest soils has been discussed.The production procedures of biochar,availability of feedstocks and the biochar properties are discussed using the existing knowledge.The positive effects of biochar are soil quality depended and change with varying geographical locations.Therefore,long-term field trials examining a range of biochars,soils,and forest types are required for a better understanding of this issue.Careful planning to match biochar with the soil properties is essential to obtain maximum benefits of biochar as a soil amendment.

Biodiversity of Edible Caterpillars of Imbrasia and Host Plants in Boukoko (Central African Republic)

In Central African Republic, edible caterpillars of Imbrasia gender are income of rural populations, present an opportunity to improve food security and belonging to the category of Non-wood forest products. The goal of this study is to document the ecology of caterpillars of genre Imbrasia in relation to its host plants in Boukoko. The questionnaire was addressed to the actors of the collection and consumption of caterpillars in this Commune, to their local knowledge concerning this food resource as well as the plants of their locality on which caterpillars are collected. The survey took place in September to October 2022 and as a general rule, the 120 respondents were elderly people whose age range varied from 35 to 70 years old. Plant samples are collected in their natural environment. Based on local names;herbaria are mounted, plants photographed and samples collected. The types of edible caterpillars have been inventoried in the field in collaboration with the local populations who consume them. Based on local names, the caterpillars are captured manually from morphological traits and then stored in bottles containing 70% ethanol. The specimens were identified. The data was entered into the Excel spreadsheet which also made it possible to produce histograms with the frequencies of the plant species most valued by the different caterpillars. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was then performed using R software to highlight the correlation between caterpillars and host plants. The main economic importance trees hosting edible caterpillars of Imbrasia gender in Boukoko region are: Entandrophragma cylindricum, Pentaclethra macrophylla, Maesopsis eminii, Albizia ferruginea, Macaranga spinosa, Amphimas ferrugineus, Pentaclethra macrophylla, Racosperma auriculiforme, Eribroma oblonga. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) carried out to assess the variability between the different species of caterpillars according to their host plants shows that the first two axes F1 and F2 explain 27.34% of the overall variability. The different variables along the two factorial axes are weakly correlated. The caterpillar species Imbrasia truncata, Imbrasia epimethea, Imbrasia obscura, Imbrasia petiveri, Imbrasia forda and Imbrasia alopia have more host plant diversity than the caterpillar species: Imbrasia melanops, Imbrasia eblis, Imbrasia anthina, Imbrasia wahlbergii and Imbrasia oyemensis.

Increased salinity and groundwater levels lead to degradation of the Robinia pseudoacacia forest in the Yellow River Delta

Forest degradation is a worldwide problem,although its causes vary due to geographical and climatic differences and man-made causes.In recent years,the Robinia pseudoacacia forest in the Yellow River Delta has suffered severe degradation.The causative mechanisms were investigated in the field over two years,and the results show that increased forest degradation was reflected by increased tree mortality,high leaf and soil sodium salt levels and groundwater depth.Average tree diameters decreased,and leaf chlorophyll and soil microbial contents decreased.Redundancy discriminate analysis(RDA)showed that degradation of the forest was correlated positively with soil salt content,but negatively with groundwater depth.Correlation analysis showed that 0.79%–0.95%soil salt content and above 1.20 m groundwater depth caused the death of R.pseudoacacia trees due to localized anthropogenic economic activities,such as rice farming,that disrupted the original water–salt balance.Measures are recommended to prevent further degradation and restore degraded forests.

Governance of forest conservation and co-benefits for Bangladesh under changing climate

We focused on key aspects of forest governance for biodiver- sity conservation in implementing new climate change policies. The national forest institutions must be adaptive to identify the existing pitfalls of prior conservation policies to take advantage of new climate change policies. Strengthening roles and technical capacity of national institutions for systematic biodiversity monitoring and carbon stock assessment is required in developing and least developed countries. Community participation needs careful analysis to ensure equitable ac- cess of particular social groups to local decision-making processes and to sustain optional livelihoods. The livelihood options around forest reserves or protected areas must be taken into account to enhance forest-based adaptation.

Mapping aboveground biomass by integrating geospatial and forest inventory data through a k-nearest neighbor strategy in North Central Mexico

As climate change negotiations progress,monitoring biomass and carbon stocks is becoming an important part of the current forest research.Therefore,national governments are interested in developing forest-monitoring strategies using geospatial technology.Among statistical methods for mapping biomass,there is a nonparametric approach called k-nearest neighbor(kNN).We compared four variations of distance metrics of the kNN for the spatially-explicit estimation of aboveground biomass in a portion of the Mexican north border of the intertropical zone.Satellite derived,climatic,and topographic predictor variables were combined with the Mexican National Forest Inventory(NFI)data to accomplish the purpose.Performance of distance metrics applied into the kNN algorithm was evaluated using a cross validation leave-one-out technique.The results indicate that the Most Similar Neighbor(MSN)approach maximizes the correlation between predictor and response variables(r=0.9).Our results are in agreement with those reported in the literature.These findings confirm the predictive potential of the MSN approach for mapping forest variables at pixel level under the policy of Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation(REDD+).

Mangrove forest degradation indicated by mangrove-derived organic matter in the Qinzhou Bay,Guangxi,China,and its response to the Asian monsoon during the Holocene climatic optimum

The response of mangrove ecosystems to the Asian monsoon in the future global warming can be understood by reconstructing the development of mangrove forests during the Holocene climatic optimum（HCO）, using proxies preserved in coastal sediments. The total organic matter in sediments of a segmented core, with calibrated age ranges between 5.6 and 7.7 cal. ka BP and corresponding to the HCO, from the Qinzhou Bay in Guangxi, China, is quantitatively partitioned into three end-members according to their sources： mangrove-derived, terrigenous,and marine phytoplanktonic, using a three-end-member model depicted by organic carbon isotope（δ13Corg） and the molar ratio of total organic carbon to total nitrogen（C/N）. The percentage of mangrove-derived organic matter（MOM） contribution is used as a proxy for mangrove development. Three visible drops in MOM contribution occurred at ca. 7.3, ca. 6.9, and ca. 6.2 cal. ka BP, respectively, are recognized against a relatively stable and higher MOM contribution level, indicating that three distinct mangrove forest degradations occurred in the Qinzhou Bay during the HCO. The three mangrove forest degradations approximately correspond to the time of the strengthened/weakened Asian winter/summer monsoon. This indicates that even during a period favorable for the mangrove development, such as the HCO, climatic extremes, such as cold and dry events driven by the strengthened/weakened Asian winter/summer monsoon, can trigger the degradation of mangrove forests.

Forest biomass density,utilization and production dynamics in a western Himalayan watershed

There is enough evidence to show that the forest biomass has decreased significantly in the Indian Himalayan state of Himachal Pradesh. The government has responded through restrictive measures to check this decline. Using tree biomass as proxy for degradation, we assessed the current state of biomass within dominant land use types and examined its implications for sustainability. The highest above-ground mean tree biomass density of 1158 t·ha-1 was recorded for the reserved forest followed by 728, 13, 11, 8, 5 and 3 t·ha-1in the protected forest, fallow land, cultivated-unirrigated land, grassland, orchard land and cultivated-irrigated land respectively. Of the total ac- cessible biomass, only 0.31% was extracted annually by the local people for fuel, fodder and other uses. Though, the current level of ex- traction may be sustainable in the short run, insufficient regeneration is observed for long term sustainability. Forest biomass production was simulated for the next 30 years with a logistic growth model and the relative significance of input variables in influencing system be- haviour was analysed through sensitivity analysis. The model results highlighted the declining forest resources in the long run. Positive response through appropriate government policies can, however, change the scenario for the better.

Restoration of Forested Lands under Bauxite Mining with Emphasis on Guyana during the First Two Decades of the XXI Century: A Review

Mining poses a major environmental threat to tropical forest ecosystems, given its role in long-term forest degradation. Like Suriname, Guyana presents one of the less disturbed forested lands in South America. The local economy is improving, thanks to the development of mining which is primarily focused on gold, diamond, and bauxite. This, however, has resulted in long-term degradation of important forest ecosystems and the pollution of water bodies, and these have given rise to increasing concentrations of sediments. Taking into consideration the afore-mentioned, this review synthesizes, for the first time, literature which describes knowledge-based restoration practices in forested fragmented landscapes at different bauxite mining areas. The principal objective of this endeavor is to learn from case studies that have been carried out in the Neotropics especially in South America, with a view to applying best practices to the Guyana context. It has been found that mining presents a serious challenge for physical, chemical, and biological restoration. Comprehensive knowledge of the ecology of the landscape—structure and configuration, soil type, physical, chemical and biological properties, dispersal mode, and the identification and quantification/inventory of plant communities is critically important pinpointed for planning restoration programmes. The process of recovering some of the ecological functions of the pristine forest, through natural regeneration, is vital to supporting biodiversity in overburden dumps and to mitigating environmental impacts. One of these many functions, functional connectivity, can be enhanced to optimize the restoration of forest cover leading to an increase in local biodiversity. Bearing in mind the afore-stated, this review synthesizes passive and active restoration through reforestation with local and exotic species, ecological management of colonization, nucleation practices, and the use of Landscape Ecology models. These have been identified as the most appropriate to follow, given that a spatially driven design can provide much needed knowledge of the restoration/reclamation plan for Bauxite Mine Lands. Ecologically sound designs are a catalyst for devising mechanisms which can (help to) reduce environmental impacts. These designs can also help to boost the velocity at which ecological processes operate, in order to increase the resilience of ecosystems and the connectivity between forest patches and continuous pristine forests.

Assessing the Correlation between Forest Degradation and Climate Variability in the Oluwa Forest Reserve, Ondo State, Nigeria

Between 1981 and 1994, Nigeria lost 3.7 million hectares of its forests. It is estimated that less than 4% of Nigeria’s rainforest cover is left. Reckless use and abuse of the forest reserves in Nigeria lead to degradation. However, the relationship between forest degradation and climate variability has not been clearly elucidated. This study assesses the trend of forest degradation between 1986, 2002 and 2014 in the study area and also examines the correlation between forest degradation and climate variability using temperature and rainfall parameters. Classification of Landsat images (TM 1986, ETM+ 2002, and OLI 2014) and change analysis using NDVI values of three-timed period were performed to observe forest degradation in the study area. NDVI values were calculated by combining bands 4 (near infrared) and 3 (visible red) for Landsat TM and ETM+ and bands 5 (near infrared) and 4 (visible red) for Landsat OLI using the spatial analysis extension in ArcGIS environment Linear regression statistical analysis was employed to determine the correlation between forest degradation and climate variability. The results show a fluctuation in the trend of forest degradation, while a positive correlation coefficient of 0.58 shows that there is a relationship between forest degradation and temperature and rainfall variability. The study concludes that though there is a positive correlation between forest degradation and climate variability in the study area, the relationship is weak and not strong enough to make generalizations.

Challenges of Integration the Policies and Measures in the National and Local Strategy of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Mozambique

Global political forums on climate have identified deforestation and forest degradation actions as the main sources of atmospheric emissions. Therefore, its reduction is basically the main international agenda. The objectives of environmental policy seem to prevail conflicting, between the global, which aims to stabilize emissions with sequestration of forest carbon and local poverty reduction. REDD＋ （Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation） is considered cheap proposal for mitigation and adaptation to climate changes. Thus, Mozambique is preparing for accessing to forest carbon financing. The study analyzed interaction of policies and measures in the national and local strategy of REDD＋ in Mozambique and resorted three methodological procedures, review of previous study, interviews and seminars, in a non-probabilistic sampling. Conflicting visions among nations hinder consensus on reducing emissions and REDD＋ aims to replace the KP （Kyoto Protocol）. National strategy of REDD＋ should suggest measures and policies to reduce deforestation in key sectors contributing to emissions. Interviewees suggested technological approach （30%）, agrarian reform （26%）, institutional reform （21%） and decentralization （20%）. Therefore, 77.3% supported technological use to increase production and productivity and for the forest sector, 86.4% supported forest concessions. They also highlighted conservation agriculture, SAFs （Agroforestry Systems）, energy accessibility and mining licensing. However, REDD＋ is being projected from the global to the local, but the debate must extrapolate negotiations restricted to government participation, as well as policy options and incentives to generate co-benefits that address local community priorities.

Characterization of Forest Degradation beyond Canopy Cover Change in Mau Forest, Kenya

Monitoring Forest degradation is evidence enough to show a country’s commitment to monitor the forest trend both for national and local decision-making and international reporting processes. Unlike deforestation which is easier to point out, monitoring forest degradation is quite a challenge since there is no universal definition and thus no clear monitoring methods apart from the canopy cover change. This research, therefore, sought to look at the degradation trends in the Mau forest complex between 1995-2020 with the aim of finding out whether monitoring canopy density changes over time and quantifying these changes in terms of biomass loss could be a good approach in monitoring forest degradation. Forest Canopy Density (FCD) model was adopted focusing on using vegetation indices describing biophysical conditions of Vegetation, Shadow and Bareness to monitor changes in canopy density as a parameter for describing forest degradation in the forest blocks of Maasai Mau and Olpusimoru in Mau forest complex. Results indicated how different vegetation indices responded to changes in the vegetation density and eventually changes in the canopy density values which were converted in terms of biomass loss. The forest Canopy Density model proved to be a good tool for monitoring forest degradation since it combines different biophysical indices with different characteristics capturing what is happening below the canopy.

Monitoring Forest Recovery in Protected Forests of Northern Côte d’Ivoire Using Landsat Imagery and Intensity Change Analysis

In this paper, the initiatives of reforestation of the national forests of the North of the Côte d’Ivoire were examined using geomatics and the analysis of change of intensity by taking the case of the protected Forest of Badénou (PFB). A spatial analysis based on multi-spectral and multi-temporal Landsat imagery was carried out to assess land cover changes in the (PFB) over the past two decades and determine whether patterns of change in terms of the intensity of gains/losses of each of the land cover classes were active or dormant between the period before (2000-2013) and after (2013-2019) the reforestation initiative. Five main classes were identified: forest (dry deciduous and gallery forests), tree savannah, shrub/grassy savannah (including agricultural lands), bare lands (bare soils and degraded land areas), and water course. All classes were satisfactorily classified, with an excellent producer’s and user’s and overall accuracies and very good Kappa coefficients. The results showed that between 2000 and 2019, the forest cover in the PFB increased from 7778 ha to 5054 ha, a decrease was marked between 2000 and 2013 of approximately 60% compared to its size in 2000, while a slight increase between 2013 and 2019 (4645 ha to 5054 ha) i.e. around 9%) certainly due to the reforestation since 2016. As for the annual intensities of change for each class in both study periods, changes (gain or loss) in forest and tree savanna were relatively dormant after reforestation, while annual bare land gain was relatively active and marked, indicating that degradation of forests remains a threat to the sustainability of the PFB. Forest degradation has occurred mainly in the eastern parts of the PFB, while the central parts have regained more tree cover. These results can help identify conservation and restoration priorities and improve the overall management of the PFB.

Remote Sensing and Landscape Metrics-Based Forest Physical Degradation: Two-Decades Assessment in Gishwati-Mukura Biological Corridor in Rwanda, East-Central Africa

The management of forest corridors and related ecology is one of the effective strategies to minimize the adverse effects of forest degradation. It controls the connectivity of inhabitant species and the connection of the isolated patches. This study analyzed spatial and temporal forest physical degradation based on forest cover change and forest fragmentation in the Gishwati-Mukura biological corridor from 1990-2019. Remotely sensed datasets, Geographical Information System (GIS) and FRAGSTATS software were used to analyze the spatial and temporal physical degradation and changes in forest cover. The results indicated that the Gishwati-Mukura corridor experienced massive deforestation where approximately 7617.1 ha (64.22%) of forest cover was completely cleared out, which implies an annual forest loss of 262.6 ha·year-1 (2.21%) during 1990-2019. The forest cover transitions patterns and geostatistical analysis indicated that extensive deforestation was associated with intensive agriculture. The results demonstrated that agriculture has dramatically increased from 29.46% in 1990 to 57.22% in 2019, with an annual increase of 1.97%. Since Gishwati-Mukura has changed to National Park (NP), it lacks diversified scientific studies addressing the analysis of the remote and spatial patterns to investigate its physical degradation and landscape dynamics. This research study will serve as remote forest analysis gap-filling and as the cornerstone of numerous other research that will contribute to the improvement of the connectivity assessments along the Gishwati-Mukura corridor and other related ecosystems.

Floristic Inventory and Evaluation of Carbon Sequestration Potential of the Misomuni Forest Massif,Kikwit City (Democratic Republic of the Congo)

The aim of this study was to inventory plant biodiversity and to evaluate the carbon sequestration potential of the Misomuni forest massif.An inventory of all trees with diameter at breast height(dbh)≥10 cm measured at 1.30 m height was performed.The aerial biomass(AGB)was used for estimating the stored CO2 and its carbon equivalent.88 plant species belonging to 71 genera and 32 families were inventoried.Fabaceae family displayed the highest number of species and genera.The highest basal area values were displayed by Scorodophloeus zenkeri(7.34±2.45 m2/ha),Brachystegia laurentii(5.82±1.94 m2/ha),Entandrophragma utile(5.28±1.94 m2/ha),Pentadesma butyracea(4.53±1.51 m2/ha).The highest values of stored carbon and their carbon equivalent were observed in Pentadesma butyracea(15.13±5.00 and 50.55±16.85 t/ha),Picralima nitida(7.02±2.34 and 23.66±7.88 t/ha),Strombosia tetandra(6.56±2.18 and 22.10±7.36 t/ha).The Misomuni forest massif is thus much floristically diversified and plays a significant role in the sequestration of CO2.The total AGB of the inventoried trees is 183.78±61.26 t/ha corresponding to stored carbon and carbon equivalent of 96.63±32.21 t/ha and 289.92±96.64 t/ha respectively.The protection of this ecosystem is highly needed for combatting climatic changes at local,national and regional scales and for the conservation biodiversity habitat.

Dynamic response to climate change in the radial growth of Picea schrenkiana in western Tien Shan,China

Forests are important ecosystems for economic and social development.However,the response of tree radial growth to climate has produced‘divergent problems'at high latitudes under global warming.In this study,the response stability and trend of Picea schrenkiana radial growth to variability in climate factors were analyzed in the mid-latitudes of the western Tien Shan Mountains.Radial growth of P.schrenkiana was mainly limited by minimum and mean temperatures.The divergent responses of radial growth occurred in response to the minimum and mean temperatures at the beginning of the growing season(April–May)of the current year,but responses to drought occurred in July–September of the previous year.And the mean and minimum temperatures in June–September of the current year were both stable.Radial growth first increased and then decreased according to the basal area increment,with a gradual increase in temperature.Therefore,forest ecosystems in mountainous arid areas will be increasingly affected by future climate warming.

Charcoal production through selective logging leads to degradation of dry woodlands:a case study from Mutomo District,Kenya

Provision of woodfuel is an important ecosystem service of dry forests and woodlands. However, charcoal production through selective logging of preferred hardwood species has the potential to alter the physiognomic composition of the residual or re-growth woodlands and may lead to their deterioration and degradation. This study, conducted through forest inventory in Mutomo District in Kenya, assessed the impact of charcoal production on unprotected dry woodlands in terms of tree density, targeted species basal area, species richness, evenness and Shannon diversity. The parameters of the disturbed woodlands were evaluated for significant differences with those of the neighbouring protected Tsavo East National Park, which served as a reference for an ecologically undisturbed ecosystem. By evaluating a consequence of tree harvesting for charcoal production, this study confirmed the overall significant differences between the protected and unprotected woodlands in all the tested parameters. To confirm if the differences in the land-covers of the woodlands had any influence on their degradation, all mentioned parameters were compared between the four differentiated classes and their respective control plots in the protected areas. At the ＂land-cover level＂, the statistically significant difference in the basal area of tree species preferred for charcoal production between the protected and unprotected open trees confirms that the class with a high density of large mature trees is the prime target of charcoal producers. In addition, there seems to be a general trend of lower values of tree species richness, evenness and Shannon diversity for the unprotected woodlands subjected to charcoal production. On the other hand, the disturbed woodlands display the potential to recover through their comparably high saplings density. The findings make an important contribution to the discourse on the impact of charcoal production in dry woodlands, a topic that is highly controversial among researchers.

Landscape influences and management countermeasures of ginseng planting near Changbai mountain nature reserve

Ginseng planting in Northeast China brings economic benefits but affects forest landscape integrity and native ecological processes.In order to quantify the impacts of ginseng planting on the forest landscape,Fusong County in Jilin Province was selected as a study area.The number and distribution of ginseng fields over different time was quantified based on remote sensing and ground surveys.Grid analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to study the impacts of ginseng planting on the landscape.The results showed that altitudes and slopes of ginseng fields increased and became increasingly scattered and smaller closer to the Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve.Ginseng fields and abandoned fields increased total patches and total area of the local forested landscape,and shared edge lengths between ginseng fields and forests,resulting in continuous fragmentation of the landscape.Although the total area of existing and abandoned ginseng fields accounts for a small fraction of the total landscape,their negative impacts on ecosystem conservation is significant.The local government needs to rationally plan ginseng planting,scientifically implement the restoration of abandoned ginseng lands,and enhance awareness of ginseng farmers to environmental stewardship.Our study has important significance for maintaining the healthy and stable development of the local ginseng industry and for improving the quality of regional ecological environment.