A Novel Approach for Network Vulnerability Analysis in IIoT

Industrial Internet of Things(IIoT)offers efficient communication among business partners and customers.With an enlargement of IoT tools connected through the internet,the ability of web traffic gets increased.Due to the raise in the size of network traffic,discovery of attacks in IIoT and malicious traffic in the early stages is a very demanding issues.A novel technique called Maximum Posterior Dichotomous Quadratic Discriminant Jaccardized Rocchio Emphasis Boost Classification(MPDQDJREBC)is introduced for accurate attack detection wi th minimum time consumption in IIoT.The proposed MPDQDJREBC technique includes feature selection and categorization.First,the network traffic features are collected from the dataset.Then applying the Maximum Posterior Dichotomous Quadratic Discriminant analysis to find the significant features for accurate classification and minimize the time consumption.After the significant features selection,classification is performed using the Jaccardized Rocchio Emphasis Boost technique.Jaccardized Rocchio Emphasis Boost Classification technique combines the weak learner result into strong output.Jaccardized Rocchio classification technique is considered as the weak learners to identify the normal and attack.Thus,proposed MPDQDJREBC technique gives strong classification results through lessening the quadratic error.This assists for proposed MPDQDJREBC technique to get better the accuracy for attack detection with reduced time usage.Experimental assessment is carried out with UNSW_NB15 Dataset using different factors such as accuracy,precision,recall,F-measure and attack detection time.The observed results exhibit the MPDQDJREBC technique provides higher accuracy and lesser time consumption than the conventional techniques.

Why Quantitative Variables Should Not Be Recoded as Categorical

The transformation of quantitative variables into categories is a common practice in both experimental and observational studies. The typical procedure is to create groups by splitting the original variable distribution at some cut point on the scale of measurement (e.g. mean, median, mode). Allegedly, dichotomization improves causal inference by simplifying statistical analyses. In this article, we address some of the adverse consequences of recoding quantitative variables into categories. In particular, we provide evidence that categorization usually leads to inefficient and biased estimates. We believe that considerable progress in our understanding of data analysis can occur if scholars follow the recommendations presented in this article. The recodification of quantitative variables as categorical is a poor methodological strategy, and scientists must stay away from it.

Stochastic resonance in a monostable system driven by square-wave signal and dichotomous noise

This paper investigates the stochastic resonance in a monostable system driven by square-wave signal, asymmetric dichotomous noise as well as by multiplicative and additive white noise. By the use of the properties of the dichotomous noise, it obtains the expressions of the signal-to-noise ratio under the adiabatic approximation condition. It finds that the signal-to-noise ratio is a non-monotonic function of the asymmetry of the dichotomous noise, and which varies non- monotonously with the intensity of the multiplicative and additive noise as well as the system parameters. Moreover, the signal-to-noise ratio depends on the correlation rate and intensity of the dichotomous noise.

Stochastic resonance in a stochastic bistable system with additive noises and square-wave signal

This paper considers the stochastic resonance in a stochastic bistable system driven by a periodic square-wave signal and a static force as well as by additive white noise and dichotomous noise from the viewpoint of signal-to-noise ratio. It finds that the signal-to-noise ratio appears as stochastic resonance behaviour when it is plotted as a function of the noise strength of the white noise and dichotomous noise, as a function of the system parameters, or as a function of the static force. Moreover, the influence of the strength of the stochastic potential force and the correlation rate of the dichotomous noise on the signal-to-noise ratio is investigated.

Estimation of conservation value of myrtle(Myrtus communis)using a contingent valuation method:a case study in a Dooreh forest area,Lorestan Province,Iran

Background： Around 2000 plant species occur naturally in Lorestan Province of which 250 species are medicinal and myrtle is one of them. Myrtle is a shrub whose leaves and fruits have medicinal value and thus, if managed and harvested properly, could produce sustained economic benefits. In recent years, however, over half of the myrtle site areas was destroyed, due to inappropriate management and excessive harvesting practices. Thus, coming up with a practical harvesting approach along with identifying those factors damaging the sites, seems to be very crucial. Methods： In our investigation, we calculated the conservation value per hectare of myrtle in the Dooreh forest area in Lorestan Province. Using the Contingent Valuation （CV） and Double Bounded Dichotomous Choice （DBDC） methods, we determined the willingness to pay （VVTP） for myrtle conservation. The VVTP was estimated with a Iogit model for which indices were obtained based on a maximum precision criterion. Results： The results showed that 86.67 per cent of people were willing to pay for the conservation of these myrtle sites. Average monthly WTP per family was calculated as $0.79. The annual conservation value in terms of WTP for the preservation of the myrtle sites in Dooreh was estimated as $102,525. Among the variables of the model presented, education had a positive impact, while the amount proposed for payment and family size had a negative impact on the WTP. Conclusions： Our estimate of the value of myrtle conservation should provide justification for policy makers and decision making bodies of natural resources to implement policies in order to conserve the natural sites of this species more effectively.

Stochastic resonance in linear system driven by multiplicative noise and additive quadratic noise

In this paper the stochastic resonance （SR） is studied in an overdamped linear system driven by multiplicative noise and additive quadratic noise. The exact expressions are obtained for the first two moments and the correlation function by using linear response and the properties of the dichotomous noise. SR phenomenon exhibits in the linear system. There are three different forms of SR： the bona fide SR, the conventional SR and SR in the broad sense. Moreover, the effect of the asymmetry of the multiplicative noise on the signal-to-noise ratio （SNR） is different from that of the additive noise and the effect of multiplicative noise and additive noise on SNR is different.

Entropic stochastic resonance in a confined structure driven by dichotomous noise and white noises

The entropic stochastic resonance （ESR） in a confined system subjected to dichotomous noise and white noise and driven by a periodic sinusoidal force along the x axis of the structure and a time-dependent force in the declining direction, is investigated. Under the adiabatic approximation condition and based on the two-state theory, the expression of the output signal-to-noise ratio （SNR） is obtained. The results show that the SNR is a non-monotonic function of the strengths of dichotomous noise, white noise, and correlated strength of correlated noise. In addition, the SNR varies non-monotonically with the increase of the shape parameters of the confined structure, and also with the increase of the constant force along the y axis of the structure. The influence of the correlation rate of the dichotomous noise, and that of the frequency of the periodic force on the SNR are discussed.

Moment stability for a predator–prey model with parametric dichotomous noises

In this paper, we investigate the solution moment stability for a Harrison-type predator-prey model with parametric dichotomous noises. Using the Shapiro-Loginov formula, the equations for the first-order and second-order moments are obtained and the corresponding stable conditions are given. It is found that the solution moment stability depends on the noise intensity and correlation time of noise. The first-order and second-order moments become unstable with the decrease of correlation time. That is, the dichotomous noise can improve the solution moment stability with respect to Gaussian white noise. Finally, some numerical results are presented to verify the theoretical analyses.

Stochastic Resonance in a Harmonic Oscillator Fluctuating Intrinsic Frequency by Asymmetric Dichotomous Noise

The stochastic resonance phenomenon in a harmonic oscillator with fluctuating intrinsic frequency by asymmetric dichotomous noise is investigated in this paper. By using the random average method and Shapiro- Loginov formula, the exact solution of the average output amplitude gain （OAG） is obtained. Numerical results show that OAG depends non-monotonically on the noise characteristics： intensity, correlation time and asymmetry. The maximum OAG can be achieved by tuning the noise asymmetry and or the noise correlation time.

Collective stochastic resonance behaviors of two coupled harmonic oscillators driven by dichotomous fluctuating frequency

The collective behaviors of two coupled harmonic oscillators with dichotomous fluctuating frequency are investigated,including stability, synchronization, and stochastic resonance(SR). First, the synchronization condition of the system is obtained. When this condition is satisfied, the mean-field behavior is consistent with any single particle behavior in the system. On this basis, the stability condition and the exact steady-state solution of the system are derived. Comparative analysis shows that, the stability condition is stronger than the synchronization condition, that is to say, when the stability condition is satisfied, the system is both synchronous and stable. Simulation analysis indicates that increasing the coupling strength will reduce the synchronization time. In weak coupling region, there is an optimal coupling strength that maximizes the output amplitude gain(OAG), thus the coupling-induced SR behavior occurs. In strong coupling region, the two particles are bounded as a whole, so that the coupling effect gradually disappears.

Experiment and application of parameter-induced stochastic resonance in an over-damped random linear system

This paper investigates the parameter-induced stochastic resonance using experimental methods in an over-damped random linear system with asymmetric dichotomous noise. Non-monotonic dependence of signal-to-noise ratio on the system parameter is observed. Several potential applications of parameter-induced stochastic resonance are given in circuits.

Improved dichotomous search frequency offset estimator for burst-mode continuous phase modulation

A data-aided technique for cartier frequency offset estimation with continuous phase modulation （CPM） in burst- mode transmission is presented. The proposed technique first exploits a special pilot sequence, or training sequence, to form a sinusoidal waveform. Then, an improved dichotomous search frequency offset estimator is introduced to determine the frequency offset using the sinusoid. Theoretical analysis and simulation results indicate that our estimator is noteworthy in the following aspects. First, the estimator can operate independently of timing recovery. Second, it has relatively low outlier, i.e., the minimum signal-to-noise ratio （SNR） required to guarantee estimation accuracy. Finally, the most important property is that our estimator is complexity-reduced compared to the existing dichotomous search methods： it eliminates the need for fast Fourier transform （FFT） and modulation removal, and exhibits faster convergence rate without accuracy degradation.

Noise composed of multiplication of two dichotomous noises

In this paper, we introduce a noise which is composed of multiplication of two dichotomous noises, and derive the probability density and the statistical properties of this noise. The obtained results can help study the resonant activation phenomenon, the phenomenon of stochastic resonance, the transport of particles, and the nonequilibrium （phase） transition for the systems driven by this noise.

Effect of inertia mass on the stochastic resonance driven by a multiplicative dichotomous noise

A stochastic system driven by dichotomous noise and periodic signal is investigated in the under-damped case.The exact expressions of output signal amplitude and signal-to-noise ratio（SNR） of the system are derived.Numerical results indicate that the inertial mass greatly affects the output signal amplitude and the SNR.Regardless of whether the noise is symmetric or asymmetric,the inertial mass can influence the phenomenon of stochastic resonance（SR） of the system,leading to two types of resonance phenomenon：one is coherence-resonance-like of the SNR with inertial mass,the other is the SR of the SNR with noise intensity.

Effect of inertial mass on a linear system driven by dichotomous noise and a periodic signal

A linear system driven by dichotomous noise and a periodic signal is investigated in the underdamped case. The exact expressions of output signal amplitude and signal-to-noise ratio （SNR） of the system are derived. By means of numerical calculation, the results indicate that （i） at some fixed noise intensities, the output signal amplitude with inertial mass exhibits the structure of a single peak and single valley, or even two peaks if the dichotomous noise is asymmetric; （ii） in the case of asymmetric dichotomous noise, the inertial mass can cause non-monotonic behaviour of the output signal amplitude with respect to noise intensity; （iii） the curve of SNR versus inertial mass displays a maximum in the case of asymmetric dichotomous noise, i.e., a resonance-like phenomenon, while it decreases monotonically in the case of symmetric dichotomous noise; （iv） if the noise is symmetric, the inertial mass can induce stochastic resonance in the system.

Could one single dichotomous noise cause resonant activation for exit time over potential barrier?

This paper studies the mean first passage time （or exit time, or escape time） over the non-fluctuating potential harrier for a system driven only by a dichotomous noise. It finds that the dichotomous noise can make the particles escape over the potential barrier, in some circumstances; but in other circumstances, it can not. In the case that the particles escape over the potential harrier, a resonant activation phenomenon for the mean first passage time over the potential barrier is obtained.

Rasch Model Assessment for Bloom Digital Taxonomy Applications

Assessment using Bloom’s taxonomy levels has evolved in a variety of contexts and uses.In the era of the COVID-19 pandemic,which necessitates use of online assessment,the need for teachers to use digital-based taxonomy skills or Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy(BDT)has increased even more.However,the existing studies on validity and reliability of BDT items are limited.To overcome this limitation,this study aims to test whether BDT has good psychometric characteristics as a teacher’s self-assessment tool using the Rasch model analysis and to investigate the pattern of BDT usage in teaching and learning.By using a quantitative online survey design,this study involves six levels of BDT,namely,Remembering,Understanding,Applying,Analyzing,Evaluating,and Creating.The questionnaire was developed and validated by two experts prior to administration.A stratified random sampling technique was conducted on 774 secondary teachers from five geographical zones in Malaysia,and the Rasch model was analyzed using WINSTEPS 3.71 software.The performances of items improved by Rasch psychometric assessment including the application of BDT among teachers.The hierarchy level was also assessed through graphical analysis,including the Wright map and bubble chart,to demonstrate the powerful performance of the Rasch model analysis in investigating item quality and reliability.Overall,these empirically validated items using the Rasch model could advance the academic knowledge of BDT for future assessment and promote the Rasch calibration in an educational setting.

Efficient multiuser detector based on box-constrained deregularization and its FPGA design

Multiuser detection can be described as a quadratic optimization problem with binary constraint. Many techniques are available to find approximate solution to this problem. These tech- niques can be characterized in terms of complexity and detection performance. The ＂efficient frontier＂ of known techniques include the decision-feedback, branch-and-bound and probabilistic data association detectors. The presented iterative multiuser detection technique is based on joint deregularized and box-constrained so- lution to quadratic optimization with iterations similar to that used in the nonstationary Tikhonov iterated algorithm. The deregulari- zation maximizes the energy of the solution, this is opposite to the Tikhonov regularization where the energy is minimized. However, combined with box-constraints, the deregularization forces the solution to be close to the binary set. We further exploit the box- constrained dichotomous coordinate descent （DCD） algorithm and adapt it to the nonstationary iterative Tikhonov regularization to present an efficient detector. As a result, the worst-case and aver- age complexity are reduced down to K28 and K2~ floating point operation per second, respectively. The development improves the ＂efficient frontier＂ in multiuser detection, which is illustrated by simulation results. Finally, a field programmable gate array （FPGA） design of the detector is presented. The detection performance obtained from the fixed-point FPGA implementation shows a good match to the floating-point implementation.

Eating disorders, body image, and dichotomous thinking among Japanese and Russian college women

This study explored cross-cultural differences between Japan and Russia in terms of women’s body images, proneness to eating disorders, and the effects of dichotomous thinking. Participants included 419 Japanese and 187 Russian college women who completed the Dichotomous Thinking Inventory (DTI), the 26-item version of the Eating Attitudes Test, and responses regarding nine figures representing female body shapes. The mean age of the participants was 19.8 years, with no significant age differences between the countries. The results showed that Japanese women have leaner ideal body images than Russian women, whereas there were no cross-cultural differences in the participants’ real body images. DTI scores among Russian participants were higher than DTI scores among Japanese participants, which indicated that Russian women think more dichotomously than Japanese. Structural equation modeling indicated a significantly negative effect of dichotomous thinking only on real body image in Russia;the ideal body image had greater effects on eating disorder in Russia than in Japan.

A parallel complex divider architecture based on DCD iterations for computing complex division in MVDR beamformer

This paper presents a hardware architecture using mixed pipeline and parallel processing for complex division based on dichotomous coordinate descent(DCD) iterations. The objective of the proposed work is to achieve low-latency and resource optimized complex divider architecture in adaptive weight computation stage of minimum variance distortionless response(MVDR)algorithm. In this work, computation of complex division is modeled as a 2×2 linear equation solution problem and the DCD algorithm allows linear systems of equations to be solved with high degree of computational efficiency. The operations in the existing DCD algorithm are suitably parallel pipelined and the performance is optimized to 2 clock cycles per iteration. To improve the degree of parallelism, a parallel column vector read architecture is devised.The proposed work is implemented on the field programmable gate array(FPGA) platform and the results are compared with state-of-art literature. It concludes that the proposed architecture is suitable for complex division in adaptive weight computation stage of MVDR beamformer. We demonstrate the performance of the proposed architecture for MVDR beamformer employed in medical ultrasound imaging applications.