Printability disparities in heterogeneous material combinations via laser directed energy deposition:a comparative study

Additive manufacturing provides achievability for the fabrication of bimetallic and multi-material structures;however,the material compatibility and bondability directly affect the parts’formability and final quality.It is essential to understand the underlying printability of different material combinations based on an adapted process.Here,the printability disparities of two common and attractive material combinations(nickel-and iron-based alloys)are evaluated at the macro and micro levels via laser directed energy deposition(DED).The deposition processes were captured using in situ high-speed imaging,and the dissimilarities in melt pool features and track morphology were quantitatively investigated within specific process windows.Moreover,the microstructure diversity of the tracks and blocks processed with varied material pairs was comparatively elaborated and,complemented with the informative multi-physics modeling,the presented non-uniformity in mechanical properties(microhardness)among the heterogeneous material pairs was rationalized.The differences in melt flow induced by the unlike thermophysical properties of the material pairs and the resulting element intermixing and localized re-alloying during solidification dominate the presented dissimilarity in printability among the material combinations.This work provides an in-depth understanding of the phenomenological differences in the deposition of dissimilar materials and aims to guide more reliable DED forming of bimetallic parts.

Effect of hot isostatic pressure on the microstructure and tensile properties of γ'-strengthened superalloy fabricated through induction-assisted directed energy deposition

The microstructure characteristics and strengthening mechanism of Inconel738LC(IN-738LC) alloy prepared by using induction-assisted directed energy deposition(IDED) were elucidated through the investigation of samples subjected to IDED under 1050℃ preheating with and without hot isostatic pressing(HIP,1190℃,105 MPa,and 3 h).Results show that the as-deposited sample mainly consisted of epitaxial columnar crystals and inhomogeneously distributed γ’ phases in interdendritic and dendritic core regions.After HIP,grain morphology changed negligibly,whereas the size of the γ’ phase became increasingly even.After further heat treatment(HT,1070℃,2 h + 845℃,24 h),the γ’ phase in the as-deposited and HIPed samples presented a bimodal size distribution,whereas that in the as-deposited sample showed a size that remained uneven.The comparison of tensile properties revealed that the tensile strength and uniform elongation of the HIP + HTed sample increased by 5% and 46%,respectively,due to the synergistic deformation of bimodal γ’phases,especially large cubic γ’ phases.Finally,the relationship between phase transformations and plastic deformations in the IDEDed sample was discussed on the basis of generalized stability theory in terms of the trade-off between thermodynamics and kinetics.

Review on laser directed energy deposited aluminum alloys

Lightweight aluminum(Al)alloys have been widely used in frontier fields like aerospace and automotive industries,which attracts great interest in additive manufacturing(AM)to process high-value Al parts.As a mainstream AM technique,laser-directed energy deposition(LDED)shows good scalability to meet the requirements for large-format component manufacturing and repair.However,LDED Al alloys are highly challenging due to their inherent poor printability(e.g.low laser absorption,high oxidation sensitivity and cracking tendency).To further promote the development of LDED high-performance Al alloys,this review offers a deep understanding of the challenges and strategies to improve printability in LDED Al alloys.The porosity,cracking,distortion,inclusions,element evaporation and resultant inferior mechanical properties(worse than laser powder bed fusion)are the key challenges in LDED Al alloys.Processing parameter optimizations,in-situ alloy design,reinforcing particle addition and field assistance are the efficient approaches to improving the printability and performance of LDED Al alloys.The underlying correlations between processes,alloy innovation,characteristic microstructures,and achievable performances in LDED Al alloys are discussed.The benchmark mechanical properties and primary strengthening mechanism of LDED Al alloys are summarized.This review aims to provide a critical and in-depth evaluation of current progress in LDED Al alloys.Future opportunities and perspectives in LDED high-performance Al alloys are also outlined.

Cracking on a nickel-based superalloy fabricated by direct energy deposition

Cracks have consistently been a significant challenge limiting the development of additive manufactured nickel-based superalloys.It is essential to investigate the location of cracks and their forming mechanism.This study extensively examines the impact of solidification process,microstructural evolution,and stress concentration on crack initiation during direct energy deposition(DED).The results emphasize that the crack formation is significantly related to large-angle grain boundaries,rapid cooling rates.Cracks caused by large-angle grain boundaries and a fast-cooling rate predominantly appear near the edge of the deposited samples.Liquation cracks are more likely to form near the top of the deposited sample,due to the presence ofγ/γ'eutectics.The secondary dendritic arm and the carbides in the interdendritic regions can obstruct liquid flow during the final stage of solidification,which results in the formation of solidification cracks and voids.This work paves the way to avoid cracks in nickel-based superalloys fabricated by DED,thereby enhancing the performance of superalloys.

Formation mechanism of inherent spatial heterogeneity of microstructure and mechanical properties of NiTi SMA prepared by laser directed energy deposition

Ni51Ti49 at.%bulk was additively manufactured by laser-directed energy deposition(DED)to reveal the microstructure evolution,phase distribution,and mechanical properties.It is found that the localized remelting,reheating,and heat accumulation during DED leads to the spatial heterogeneous distribution of columnar crystal and equiaxed crystal,a gradient distribution of Ni4Ti3 precipitates along the building direction,and preferential formation of Ni4Ti3 precipitates in the columnar zone.The austenite transformation finish temperature(Af)varies from-12.65℃(Z=33 mm)to 60.35℃(Z=10 mm),corresponding to tensile yield strength(σ0.2)changed from 120±30 MPa to 570±20 MPa,and functional properties changed from shape memory effect to superelasticity at room temperature.The sample in the Z=20.4 mm height has the best plasticity of 9.6%and the best recoverable strain of 4.2%.This work provided insights and guidelines for the spatial characterization of DEDed NiTi.

Effect of wire-arc directed energy deposition on the microstructural formation and age-hardening response of the Mg-9Al-1Zn(AZ91)alloy

In recent years,wire-arc directed energy deposition(wa DED),which is also commonly known as wire-arc additive manufacturing(WAAM),has emerged as a promising new fabrication technique for magnesium alloys.The major reason for this is the possibility of producing parts with a complex geometry as well as a fine-grained microstructure.While the process has been shown to be applicable for Mg-Al-Zn alloys,there is still a lack of knowledge in terms of the influence of the WAAM process on the age-hardening response.Consequently,this study deals with the aging response of a WAAM AZ91 alloy.In order to fully understand the mechanisms during aging,first,the as-built condition was analyzed by means of high-energy X-ray diffraction(HEXRD)and scanning electron microscopy.These investigations revealed a finegrained,equiaxed microstructure with adjacent areas of alternating Al content.Subsequently,the difference between single-and double-step aging as well as conventional and direct aging was studied on the as-built WAAM AZ91 alloy for the first time.The aging response during the various heat treatments was monitored via in situ HEXRD experiments.Corroborating electron microscopy and hardness studies were conducted.The results showed that the application of a double-step aging heat treatment at 325℃with pre-aging at 250℃slightly improves the mechanical properties when compared to the single-step heat treatment at 325℃.However,the hardness decreases considerably after the pre-aging step.Thus,aging at lower temperatures is preferable within the investigated temperature range of 250-325℃.Moreover,no significant difference between the conventionally aged and directly aged samples was found.Lastly,the specimens showed enhanced precipitation kinetics during aging as compared to cast samples.This could be attributed to a higher amount of nucleation sites and the particular temperature profile of the solution heat treatment.

Microstructure and mechanical property of additively manufactured NiTi alloys:A comparison between selective laser melting and directed energy deposition

NiTi shape memory alloy(SMA)with nominal composition of Ni 50.8 at%and Ti 49.2 at%was additively manufactured(AM)by selective laser melting(SLM)and laser directed energy deposition(DED)for a comparison study,with emphasis on its phase composition,microstructure,mechanical property and deformation mechanism.The results show that the yield strength and ductility obtained by SLM are 100 MPa and 8%,respectively,which are remarkably different from DED result with 700 MPa and 2%.The load path of SLM sample presents shape memory effect,corresponding to martensite phase detected by XRD;while the load path of DED presents pseudo-elasticity with austenite phase.In SLM sample,fine grain and hole provide a uniform deformation during tensile test,resulting in a better elongation.Furthermore,the nonequilibrium solidification was studied by a temperature field simulation to understand the difference of the two 3D printing methods.Both temperature gradient G and growth rate R determine the microstructure and phase in the SLM sample and DED sample,which leads to similar grain morphologies because of similar G/R.While higher G×R of SLM leads to a finer grain size in SLM sample,providing enough driving force for martensite transition and subsequently changing texture compared to DED sample.

Pore Formation Mechanism in W-C Hard Coatings Using Directed Energy Deposition on Tungsten Alloy

Porosity is a common phenomenon and can significantly hinder the quality of the coating.Here,the pore formation mechanism and the characteristics of the single tracks of the W-C coating using directed energy deposition(DED)are systematically investigated.The forming quality of the tracks,the distribution of the pores,and the elemental distribution near the pores are analyzed by the observations of the cross-sections of the tracks.The temperature field of the melt pool is discussed comprehensively to reveal the pore formation mechanism.The results confirm that Ni and Co evaporated during the DED process due to the high temperature of the melt pool.Pores were continuously produced adjacent to the fusion line when the melt pool was about to solidify since the temperature at the solidification front was higher than the boiling point of Ni.The vaporization area at the fusion line was proposed,where Ni could also evaporate at the time the melt pool started to solidify.The relationship between the solidification rate,the size of the vaporization area and the DED parameters(laser power and scanning speed)was established to discuss the causes of severe pores above the fusion line.This work contains a practical guide to reduce or eliminate the porosity in the coating preparation process on the surface of the tungsten alloy.

An experimental study on effects of temperature gradient on microstructure of a 308L stainless steel manufactured by directed energy deposition

The effect of spatial temperature gradient on the microstructural evolution of a 308L stainless steel during the directed energy deposition(DED)process was experimentally investigated.A novel cooling system was designed and incorporated to a DED system in order to control the temperature gradient along the deposition direction during solidification.During deposition,the workpiece was placed on a lifting platform,and as the deposition process proceeded,the platform and workpiece were gradually lowered into cooling water so that the temperature gradient along the deposition direction could be controlled and maintained stable during the deposition process.The microstructure characterization results indicated that a deposition strategy with higher G and G/R values(where G is temperature gradient and R is solidification rate)produced finer cellular grains that were better aligned with the deposition direction,while a deposition strategy with lower G and G/R values produced columnar grains with larger primary arm spacing and less aligned with the deposition direction.

激光定向能量沉积Al-Mg-Sc-Zr修复5083-H112铝合金的组织和性能

激光定向能量沉积增材修复技术具有时间短、效率高、成本低、力学性能好等优点,具有很大的发展潜力。采用Al-7.5Mg-0.3Sc-0.28Zr作为修复材料对轨道交通用5083-H112铝合金进行激光修复实验,得到了致密、无缺陷的修复试样,并对其组织和性能进行研究,探讨了激光修复铝合金的可行性。结果表明,熔合线附近过渡区可划分为修复区、部分熔化区、热影响区和母材。修复区为完全等轴晶,由平均晶粒尺寸为4.95μm的细晶带和18.34μm的粗晶区组成。从修复区到部分熔化区再到热影响区的过渡区域,Al元素含量逐渐升高,Mg元素含量逐渐下降,硬度逐渐下降,修复后母材未被软化。由于激光增材制造技术的快速凝固,在熔合线附近的细晶带有较大的应力集中,由于较小的热输入在部分熔化区、热影响区的残余应力较小。修复试样的屈服强度为(152±2)MPa,为母材的89.4%;抗拉强度为(305±5)MPa,为母材抗拉强度的100%;伸长率为(15.5±0.5)%,为母材的85.2%;断裂发生在强度较弱的母材。高性能的激光修复铝合金是可实现的,具有广泛的应用前景。

等离子电弧双丝增材制造Ti-48Al合金组织特征

采用等离子电弧双丝增材制造技术成功制备了Ti-48Al合金(at.%),并对其沉积态和热处理后的组织特征进行了系统地研究.结果表明,沉积态Ti-48Al合金主要由α2相和γ相组成,沿着沉积方向,沉积态组织呈现由树枝晶区和片层晶团区交替分布的不均匀性特征,并且在树枝晶区存在严重的枝晶间Al元素偏析现象.在1 340℃/10 h/炉冷热处理后,不均匀的沉积态组织转变为晶粒尺寸细小的双态组织,Ti-48Al合金的微观组织的不均匀性获得明显改善,并且α2相含量显著增加,组织的择优取向减弱.

2219铝合金CMT电弧增材熔滴过渡行为

在冷金属过渡(cold metal transfer,CMT)电弧增材制造过程中,熔池的流动行为极易受到电弧和熔滴的影响,从而严重影响堆积层的稳定性和成形件质量.该文利用高速摄影结果及电信号参数波形图,引入热输入量计算公式,从特征电信号、熔滴过渡特征量、热输入量等方面定量分析了CMT+P模式下送丝速度及脉冲修正系数对熔滴过渡过程及单道成形形貌的影响,同时分析了脉冲变极性冷金属过渡(Advanced CMT,CMT+PA)模式下送丝速度及控制面板上的EP/EN修正系数η对熔滴过渡过程及单道成形形貌的影响,为后续工艺优化提供参考和指导.

超声振动方向对激光定向能沉积Inconel 718性能影响研究

目的面向激光定向能沉积表面改性及再制造发展需求,揭示超声振动方向对激光定向能沉积Inconel 718零件的影响机制,为超声辅助激光定向能沉积高质量成形提供参考。方法开展多方向超声振动辅助激光定向能沉积Inconel 718零件试验,结合原位熔池监测技术,研究沉积方向、搭接方向和扫描方向超声振动对熔池流动行为、微观结构和力学性能的影响。结果不同方向超声振动显著影响了熔池的动态流动行为,其中搭接方向超声振动使熔池润湿面积提高了86.4%,并且形状更为规则,拖尾现象得到改善。微观组织细化方面,扫描方向振动效果最佳,晶体直径细化了46.9%,水平方向的晶体等轴晶转变优于沉积方向,而在沉积方向振动下,Laves相点球化和减少最为明显。相较于对照组的显微硬度210.4HV0.2,添加沉积、搭接和扫描方向超声振动后分别提高到了232.5HV0.2、230.9HV0.2和233.9HV0.2,变化趋势与晶体直径变化趋势基本一致。水平方向超声振动影响下,特别是扫描方向的超声振动在提高材料强度的同时,还在一定程度上保持了材料的延展性;在搭接方向上,超声振动辅助显示出较好的各向异性消除能力,获得了优异的硬度、强度和塑性匹配。结论不同方向超声振动,通过不同方向的惯性力和热流改善了熔池的动态流动性,其中搭接方向超声振动在扩大熔池润湿面积和改善熔池动态形状方面具有优异的综合能力。由于超声强度方向性传播衰减和引起不同的声压梯度,微观组织细化和Laves相的细小点球状消减分别在扫描方向和沉积方向上最为显著,这些变化引起了显微硬度和拉伸性能的相关性提升。超声振动还均衡了材料的力学性能,提高了抗拉强度、屈服强度和延展性,尤其在搭接方向上,显示出较好的各向异性消除能力。可根据具体需求目标,选用相应的超声振动方向或者复合使用,以获得优异的Inconel 718零件熔池流动、微观形貌和力学性能匹配。

激光线能量密度对75W-FeCoNiCr合金微观组织及力学性能的影响

利用FeCoNiCr高熵合金为黏结相,并采用激光定向能量沉积(L-DED)方法制备新型75W-FeCoNiCr合金,研究激光线能量密度对合金相组成、相对密度、微观组织及力学性能的影响。研究结果表明,在线能量密度为157.14~325.00 J/mm时,不同线能量密度下的合金相组成没有明显变化,均由BCC-W相、TCP金属间化合物析出相Co_(7)W_(6)相和FCC-FeCoNiCr黏结相组成。随着线能量密度的增大,成分过冷度增加,析出相长大速率加快,其形态由板状/胞状向树枝晶状转变,并且粒径从1μm增加到8μm左右。随着线能量密度的升高,合金的致密度、显微硬度和压缩强度均呈现先升高后降低的趋势。当线能量密度为166.67 J/mm时,析出相主要为均匀胞状结构,此时,合金的致密度、显微硬度和压缩强度均达最高值,分别为98.4%、656 MPa和2261 MPa。

基于激光模式调控的高强铝合金定向能量沉积成形工艺优化

由于7075铝合金主要组成元素的沸点较低、熔体的表面张力梯度较大,加之定向能量沉积(DED)工艺中常用的圆形高斯分布(CG)激光束斑能量分布的不均匀性,导致7075铝合金DED试样的成形质量普遍不佳,这极大限制了7075铝合金DED的进一步应用。通过激光光场模式调控,可以有效改变熔池的温度场、流场及其相应的凝固条件,从而提升激光增材制造试件的成形质量和微观组织的主动控制能力。采用离轴抛物积分镜将CG光场模式匀化为圆形平顶分布(CF)光场模式,并进一步将CF光场模式倾斜以获得横向椭圆平顶分布(TE)光场模式。利用这三种不同的光场模式激光分别制备了7075铝合金DED的单道熔覆、单壁墙及块体试样。结合数值模拟,揭示光场模式对成形质量及凝固组织的影响规律及其内在机理。模拟结果显示,将激光束斑从传统的CG光场模式调制为CF与TE光场模式后,激光在熔覆层表面的热通量均匀性得到显著改善,进而减小了熔体温度梯度,提高了凝固速率。与CG光场模式相比,成形质量方面,CF与TE光场模式下单壁墙和块体试样的表面成形质量得到显著提升,其中单壁墙的宽度变化大幅降低,块体试样水平方向的尺寸精度提高,此外块体试样的致密度分别从95.8%提升至97.2%与97.7%;凝固组织方面,织构得到显著弱化,并且晶粒尺寸减小约50%,同时晶粒内纳米析出相η相的数量也有所增加。

外场辅助定向能量沉积钛合金研究进展

钛合金具有高强度、低密度与高断裂韧性等优异性能,已经广泛应用于航空航天、汽车工程与生物医学等领域。传统钛合金零件制造方法是通过铸造及后续机械加工的方式来获得最终产品,但传统方法难以加工结构复杂的钛合金零件,造成了材料的大量浪费。定向能量沉积为制造钛合金零件提供了一种更有效的加工路径,但该工艺仍然存在着若干问题,如粗大柱状晶、各种缺陷以及力学性能各向异性等。为改善上述问题,外场辅助被引入钛合金的定向能量沉积工艺中。本文主要介绍当前几种主流的外场(形变场、声场、磁场),总结和评述了外场辅助对定向能量沉积钛合金微观组织和力学性能的影响,并对外场辅助定向能量沉积钛合金的发展趋势进行展望。

大厚度TC4钛合金激光增材连接过程分区组织调控

针对大厚度钛合金构件激光增材连接过程中热累积效应导致的组织粗化及性能劣化问题,本文开展了微观组织分区调控研究,分析了厚板不同位置的晶粒尺寸与析出相形态随着激光功率与扫描速率的变化规律,形成了激光增材连接件分区组织调控方法。结果表明:通过改变激光功率来调控组织形态的参数灵敏度较高,针对激光增材连接过程热累积效应导致的组织粗化问题,需改变激光扫描速率来调控试样中上部及顶部的组织形态。当激光有效能量为5.46×10^(5) J时,增材连接试样的抗拉强度高达915 MPa左右,同时断口韧窝尺寸较大,材料塑韧性较优异。因此,在激光增材连接过程中进行分区组织调控,可实现连接件整体力学性能的显著提升。

激光粉末定向能量沉积AlCoCrFeNi高熵合金涂层的工艺、组织与力学性能

采用激光粉末定向能量沉积技术制备AlCoCrFeNi高熵合金涂层,研究了激光功率、扫描速率及搭接率等工艺参数对涂层成形特性、组织及力学性能的影响规律。研究结果表明,随着激光功率的增加,单道涂层的熔宽增大,而余高和熔深先增大后减小。随着扫描速率的增加,熔宽、余高和熔深均出现不同程度的降低。随着搭接率的升高,稀释现象逐渐减弱。搭接率为33%和50%的沉积层组织以等轴晶为主,而搭接率为67%的沉积层组织以枝晶为主。激光定向能量沉积的高G/R及二次退火效应造成了多道涂层存在亚晶结构。AlCoCrFeNi涂层大幅提升了Q235基材的表面硬度,硬度从167(HV)增加到500(HV)以上。搭接率为50%的涂层硬度最高,超过550(HV)。多道涂层的低稀释效应和独特的微观组织使其硬度明显高于单道涂层的硬度。为了兼顾成形效率和低稀释率,可选用激光功率为2200 W、送粉速率为10 mm/s和搭接率为50%的工艺条件制备AlCoCrFeNi高熵合金涂层。

超高温氧化物陶瓷激光增材制造及组织性能调控研究进展

氧化物陶瓷具有高硬度、高强度以及优异的抗氧化和抗腐蚀性能,是高性能发动机极端高温、燃气腐蚀、氧化服役环境用重要的候选高温结构材料,在航空航天用高端装备领域具有广阔的应用前景。与传统陶瓷制备技术相比,激光增材制造技术能够一步实现从原材料粉末到高性能结构件的一体化高致密成型,具有柔性度好、成型效率高的特点,可以快速制备高性能、高精度、大尺寸复杂结构部件。近年来,基于液固相变发展的熔体生长氧化物陶瓷激光增材制造技术已成为高温结构材料制备技术领域的前沿研究热点之一。本文首先概述了激光增材制造技术的基本原理,着重介绍了选区激光熔化与激光定向能量沉积两种典型激光增材制造技术的工艺特点。在此基础上,重点阐述了利用激光增材制造技术制备不同氧化物陶瓷的组织特征及工艺参数对微观组织的影响规律,并总结比较了不同体系氧化物陶瓷力学性能的差异。最后,对该领域存在的问题进行了梳理和分析,并对未来的发展趋势进行了展望。

基于固溶强化的激光定向能量沉积TiZr基高熵合金成分设计与强塑性优化

目前,部分TiZr基高熵合金由于大量脆性相的析出,呈现出强塑性难以平衡的问题,阻碍了合金作为复杂构件材料的工程应用。利用激光定向能量沉积技术基于混合元素法及非平衡快速凝固特性,实现成分设计的独特优势。通过调整TiZr基高熵合金主元成分,实现了非等原子比Ti39Zr39Nb11Mo5.5V5.5的致密成形,并获得了无金属间化合物等脆性相析出的单相固溶体合金。合金呈现出优异的塑性变形能力,其压缩应变超过了50%,而50%应变率时的压缩应力达2194 MPa。进一步分析表明,固溶强化是合金呈现较高强度的关键,其对屈服强度的贡献超过了75%。