Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) Education from Social Disciplinary Theoretical Perspectives

Disaster is a social phenomenon. The occurrence and impacts of disasters including the education sector can be studied through a social problem lens. This paper draws meaning and understanding of DRR education using the sociological disciplinary framework in a detailed qualitative case study of three schools as they responded to the devastating Gorakha earthquake in 2015 and other disasters in Nepal. This paper considers the three sub-disciplines of sociology: the sociology of disaster, the sociology of education and the sociology of education governance in a development context. These sub-disciplines are nested together to analyse social, political and historical factors and their relationships which are helpful to identify risks and vulnerabilities in the education sector in Nepal. These are the major areas to explore the disaster context and needs of context-specific education acts (hereafter DRR education) to minimise the potential risks of disasters. The article concludes that the social disciplinary framework is significantly useful to analyse DRR education provisions and implications of education governance to mobilise school in disaster preparedness, response and recovery.

Disaster risk reduction in mountain areas: an initial overview on seeking pathways to global sustainability

As disasters cripple the world’s prospects for sustainable development, protecting the most vulnerable groups exposed to hazards is one of the main challenges facing humanity. Owing to the systemic nature of risk and the interactions and interdependencies between upland and lowland systems, healthy and productive mountain households and livelihoods are essential to global sustainability. This paper argues that, building on existing international frameworks, and integrated knowledge and praxis, the development of a global policy agenda should be established to build sustainable peace, sustainable security, and development.

Disaster risk reduction in mountain areas: a research overview

This paper gives an account of the diverse dimensions of research on disaster risk reduction in mountain regions derived from an open call of the Journal of Mountain Science that brought 21 contributions.This special issue includes topics as diverse as landslide dynamics and mechanisms,landslide inventories and landslide susceptibility models,insights to landslide hazards and disasters and mitigation measures,disaster response and disaster risk reduction.The overall structure of the paper takes the form of three sections.The first part begins by laying out the significance of disaster risk reduction in mountain areas,whereas the second one looks at the research insights on disaster risk reduction in mountains provided by the contributions comprised in the special volume.The final section identifies areas for further research.

Disaster Risk Reduction,Climate Change Adaptation and Their Linkages with Sustainable Development over the Past 30 Years:AReview

The severe damage and impacts caused by extreme events in a changing climate will not only make the sustainable development goals difficult to achieve,but also erode the hard-won development gains of the past.This article reviews the major impacts and challenges of disaster and climate change risks on sustainable development,and summarizes the courses and linkages of disaster risk reduction(DRR),climate change adaptation(CCA),and sustainable development over the past 30 years.Our findings show that the conceptual development of DRR actions has gone through three general phases:disaster management in the 1990s,risk management in the 2000s,and resilient management and development in the 2010s.Gradually,CCA has been widely implemented to overcome the adverse effects of climate change.A framework is proposed for tackling climate change and disaster risks in the context of resilient,sustainable development,indicating that CCA is not a subset of DRR while they have similarities and differences in their scope and emphasis.It is crucial to transform governance mechanisms at different levels,so as to integrate CCA and DRR to reduce disaster and climate change risks,and achieve safe growth and a resilient future in the era of the Anthropocene.

Digitalization in Disaster Risk Reduction:The Use of Smartphones to Enhance the Safety of Informal Settlements in Iringa,Tanzania

Housing in informal settlements often lacks construction techniques that adopt criteria of resilience to natural hazards.Smartphones are rapidly diffusing in economically developing countries.The aim of this study was to assess the current use of smartphones by the masons of the informal settlements of Iringa,Tanzania,and to identify pathways for improving their construction practices.Data were collected through a mixed method approach that includes in-depth interviews,surveys,and a focus group with masons.The results reveal that only a few masons received formal training,most of them have never interacted with a qualified engineer nor consulted trained professionals when needed.Most masons own a smartphone and they extensively use it to gather technical information from the web,transfer money through mobile payments,share images of construction details,and promote their work on social media.The broad use of smartphones shows potential for enhancing construction quality.This article presents a unique analysis of the use of smartphones in the construction of informal settlements in Tanzania,which could be extended to other countries.Based on the findings,new strategies are proposed to engage with local stakeholders and foster the exchange of technical knowledge for safer settlements via smartphones.

Financing Disaster Risk Reduction:Exploring the Opportunities,Challenges,and Threats Within the Southern African Development Community Region

The Southern African Development Community(SADC)region,a regional economic body comprised of 16 member states,is one of our planet's most vulnerable regions to natural hazards,and has a complex disaster risk profile.The region has sustained several disasters over the past decades.These events include annual floods in 2004-2019 and extreme droughts(1990-1993);other climate-induced disasters,such as cyclones,also have had devastating impacts,particularly on the Indian Ocean island states and east coast countries.To reduce the risk and impacts of dis asters,governments must invest in disaster risk reduction(DRR).However,interventions aimed at reducing social and economic vulnerability and investing in longterm mitigation activities are often few,poorly funded,and insignificant in comparison with money spent on humanitarian assistance,dis aster relief,and post-disaster reconstruction.This study investigated whether DRR is adequately funded within SADC member states in light of the high stakes in human life,infrastructure,and economic losses and the potential savings involved.The study applied a qualitative research design with data collected through semistructured interviews and focus group discussions.Respondents were selected purposefully and through snowball sampling with a total of 67 respondents from Botswana,Eswatini,Namibia,South Africa,and Zimbabwe participating in the study.The study findings reveal that DRR is inadequately funded in all the member states consulted in comparison to funding allocated to disaster response.In light of the underfunding experienced by DRR activities,this study provides a platform for lobbying and advocacy for adequate funding for DRR.

Thirty Years of Science,Technology,and Academia in Disaster Risk Reduction and Emerging Responsibilities

The 1990 initiation of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction marked its 30th year in 2019.The three decades since then have seen significant developments in science and technology and their incorporation into the decision making in the field of disaster risk reduction.The disasters that have occurred during that time have enhanced the importance of the field,and new research and innovations have evolved.This article summarizes this evolution through the review of specific milestones.While the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 provides opportunities for synergies with the sustainable development agenda,the science and technology communities have also changed their roles from advisory to co-designing and co-delivering solutions.Higher education plays an important role in developing new generations of professionals,and the role of thematic incubation in higher education institutions is highlighted along with the development of the professional society in disaster risk reduction.The evolution from Society 4.0(information age)to Society 5.0 will see an enhanced role of the technology-driven approach in disaster risk reduction,while traditional knowledge and indigenous technologies still remain valid for society.Scientists and science communities need to be more sensitive to changing the“last mile”concept to“first mile”thinking with respect to the users’needs and perspectives.

Science and Technology Networks: A Helping Hand to Boost Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030?

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 underlines the importance of Science and Technology(S&T) and S&T networks for effective disaster risk reduction(DRR). The knowledge of existing S&T networks and their exact role in DRR,however, is limited. This opinion piece initiates a discussion on the role of S&T networks in the implementation of the Sendai Framework. The article highlights that current practice is oriented towards a narrative that emphasizes the potential of S&T for DRR and stresses a collaborative approach delivered through networks. But a true understanding of whether and how S&T networks can mobilize and enable S&T for DRR is missing. We call for a review of existing S&T networks for DRR and the development of good practice guidelines on S&T networks for DRR. This review should include knowledge on how to overcome common challenges and maximize the benefits, along with a framework for successful evaluation of such networks.This knowledge would provide much needed guidance for existing and emerging networks.

Sendai Framework’s Global Targets A and B: Opinions from the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction’s Ignite Stage 2019

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 set seven global targets of which the first two targets are to reduce disaster deaths(target A) and diminish the number of affected people globally(target B)by 2030.To realize these targets,the United Nations General Assembly’s Expert Working Group provided indicators to measure progress as well as terminologies for these targets in 2017.Research around these targets is nascent.This article contributes to the understanding of the targets by exploring:(1) what are the conditions that may hinder achieving targets,as well as those that may accelerate their achievement at the national and local levels;and(2) which types of organizations should lead a country’s effort to reduce disaster deaths?These questions were answered by opinion survey research carried out at the Sixth Session of the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction.The participants identified disaster risk reduction efforts,early warning systems,awareness,finance and investment(among others) as the important facilitating factors to achieve targets A and B.Minimal investment in human security,lack of response and coordination,uncertainty of climate change,poor information,lack of campaigns and low budget allocation(among others) are considered as the important hindering factors for these targets by the participants.The findings also suggest that the facilitating and hindering variables of targets A and B are interconnected with global target E(disaster risk governance and capacity building).The majority of the participants thought that it is the national government who should lead in a country’s effort to reduce disaster deaths.Based on these findings,a few recommendations have been made to improve policy and practice related to the indicators as well as to reimagine theories so that targets A and B can be realized in alignment with target E at the national and local levels by 2030.

On the Meaning of Impact in Disaster Risk Reduction

This article offers a discussion of the meaning,assessment,and measurement of impact in disaster risk reduction.It begins with a historical perspective on the impact of learned work in times when orthodoxy posed severe limits on the impact of new thinking.Regarding the modern age,the article explains why impact is considered important and how it might be recognized when it occurs,including a tentative classification of types of impact.The question of whether impact can truly be measured remains pending,as the answer is diffuse and dependent on many different circumstances.Further sections consider the relationship between impact and mainstreaming and the question of whether a piece of work should be regarded as having impact if its effects are negative rather than positive.Next,impact is considered in terms of whom it benefits.Given the large number of possible reservations about the concept,the question is raised as to whether too much emphasis is given to the impact of research and scholarship.Finally,some suggestions are offered regarding how to obtain a better indication of what the impact of an academic study actually is.

Reflections on a Science and Technology Agenda for 21st Century Disaster Risk Reduction Based on the Scientific Content of the 2016 UNISDR Science and Technology Conference on the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–203

The first international conference for the post-2015 United Nations landmark agreements(Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, Sustainable Development Goals, and Paris Agreement on Climate Change) was held in January 2016 to discuss the role of science and technology in implementing the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. The UNISDR Science and Technology Conference on the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 aimed to discuss and endorse plans that maximize science's contribution to reducing disaster risks and losses in the coming 15 years and bring together the diversity of stakeholders producing and using disaster risk reduction(DRR) science and technology. This article describes the evolution of the role of science and technology in the policy process building up to the Sendai Framework adoption that resulted in an unprecedented emphasis on science in the text agreed on by 187 United Nations member states in March 2015 and endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly in June 2015. Contributions assembled by the Conference Organizing Committee and teams including the conference concept notes and the conference discussions that involved a broad range of scientists and decision makers are summarized in this article. The conference emphasized how partnerships and networks can advance multidisciplinary research and bring together science, policy, and practice; how disaster risk is understood, and how risks are assessed and early warning systems are designed; what data, standards, and innovative practices would be needed to measure and report on risk reduction; what research and capacity gaps exist and how difficulties in creating and using science for effective DRR can be overcome. The Science and Technology Conference achieved two main outcomes:(1) initiating the UNISDR Science and Technology Partnership for the implementation of the Sendai Framework; and(2) generating discussion and agreement regarding the content and endorsement process of the UNISDR Science and Technology Road Map to 2030.

A Likert Scale-Based Model for Benchmarking Operational Capacity,Organizational Resilience,and Disaster Risk Reduction

Likert scales are a common methodological tool for data collection used in quantitative or mixed-method approaches in multiple domains.They are often employed in surveys or questionnaires,for benchmarking answers in the fields of disaster risk reduction,business continuity management,and organizational resilience.However,both scholars and practitioners may lack a simple scale of reference to assure consistency across disciplinary fields.This article introduces a simple-to-use rating tool that can be used for benchmarking responses in questionnaires,for example,for assessing disaster risk reduction,gaps in operational capacity,and organizational resilience.We aim,in particular,to support applications in contexts in which the target groups,due to cultural,social,or political reasons,may be unsuitable for in-depth analyses that use,for example,scales from 1 to 7 or from 1 to 10.This methodology is derived from the needs emerged in our recent fieldwork on interdisciplinary projects and from dialogue with the stakeholders involved.The output is a replicable scale from 0 to 3 presented in a table that includes category labels with qualitative attributes and descriptive equivalents to be used in the formulation of model answers.These include examples of levels of resilience,capacity,and gaps.They are connected to other tools that could be used for in-depth analysis.The advantage of our Likert scale-based response model is that it can be applied in a wide variety of disciplines,from social science to engineering.

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and Its Indicators——Where Does Health Fit in?

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 recognizes the strong connection between health and disasters and promotes the concept of health resilience throughout.Several of the seven global targets stated in the Sendai Framework are directly related to health in terms of reducing disaster mortality,the number of affected people,disaster damage to critical infrastructure,and disruption of basic services such as health facilities.The Sendai Framework also maintains close coordination with other United Nations landmark agreements relevant to health such as the Sustainable Development Goals.However,the measurement of healthrelated indicators is challenging.Issues arise,for example,in linking deaths to disasters because of the complex interplay between exposure,risk,vulnerability,and hazards.The lack of a universal classification of disasters also means that recording of health data in disasters is not standardized.Developing the guidelines to enable data onthe indicators to be collected and reported to support the Sendai targets requires detailed thinking,time,and consultation with a diverse range of stakeholders.Strong collaboration and partnership will be vital to achieving success.

Earthquake Disaster Risk Reduction in Iran:Lessons and "Lessons Learned" from Three Large Earthquake Disasters——Tabas 1978,Rudbar 1990,and Bam 2003

This article addresses three large earthquake disasters in Iran: Tabas in 1978, Rudbar in 1990, and Bam in 2003. Lessons and 'Lessons Learned' from these three earthquake disasters were investigated together with their contributions over time towards earthquake disaster risk reduction in Iran. Many lessons from 1978 Tabas, 1990 Rudbar, and 2003 Bam did not become 'Lessons Learned' and they were identified again within the dramatic context of other earthquake disasters in various places of Iran. Both lessons and 'Lessons Learned' from Tabas, Rudbar, Bam,and other earthquake disasters in Iran require a sustainable long-term framework—an earthquake culture.

Global Community of Disaster Risk Reduction Scientists and Decision Makers Endorse a Science and Technology Partnership to Support the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030

At the first gathering of its kind on the role of science in implementing the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030,over 750 scientists,policymakers,business people,and practitioners met in Geneva from January 27–29,2016.The UNISDR Science and Technology Conference on the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 fea-

ASSESSMENT ON DISASTER RISK REDUCTION OF TROPICAL STORM WA SHI

In December,2011,the world’s second most deadly disaster of the year,Tropical Storm Washi(known as Sendong in the Philippines)landed along the east coast of Mindanao,Philippines,causing 1,292 deaths,1,049 missing,2,002 injured,and total 695,195 people(110,806 families)affected.This paper introduced briefly the hydro-meteorological characteristics of Washi,and assessed its devastating impacts on society and economy,and the response and recovery taken by the Philippines government during the whole period of Washi.Based on the assessment of impact of disaster,the paper indicated the gaps and needs on aspects of DRR actions and identified the future challenges on typhoon related disaster preparedness and reduction in the Philippines.Finally,the report provided the recommendations within the framework of the activities of Typhoon Committee to improve and enhance the capacity building on typhoon related disaster reduction in the Philippines.

Place-and Age-Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction for Hong Kong:Collaborative Place Audit and Social Vulnerability Index for Elders

This study reformulates the concept and contents of disaster risk reduction(DRR) in Hong Kong through an explorative study on collaborative place audit(CPA) and social vulnerability index(SVI) for elders.We believe that DRR should be place-and age-responsive.Accordingly,DRR needs to go beyond technical concerns and address vulnerability and risk encountered in the built environment where an individual is located.A place-centered DRR begins with an assessment of person–environment relations from an interdependent perspective.Community becomes a significant scale at which to address vulnerability and risks across a range of environmental,socioeconomic,and institutional factors.A CPA is a ground-level assessment tool that identifies vulnerability and risk in the built and social environment.The audit encourages collaboration in problem solving that uses social capital to effect decisionmaking change in hierarchies and policy networks.Ageresponsive DRR facilitates distinguishing living-alone elders from the general population.This perspective addresses varying degrees of vulnerability due to social and communicational isolation,poverty,disability,being sent to hospital and/or receiving institutional care,as well as lack of access to primary care.Accordingly,SVI,based oncompound indicators,is developed to assess the differentiation of vulnerability across the territory with particular reference to the elders.These two approaches,namely,CPA and SVI,build community capacity to develop a resilient city,as well as to provide evidence-based recommendations that improve government-led disaster preparedness and contingency plans.

Convergent Agency:Encouraging Transdisciplinary Approaches for Effective Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction

Three recent global agreements have been established to facilitate the implementation of global-level responsibilities to deal with disaster risk reduction(DRR),human development,and climate change adaptation(CCA)respectively.While these agreements have a common goal of reducing social,economic,and environmental vulnerability,they have been developed by largely independent communities of practice.This has limited cross-fertilization despite the inherent multidimensional nature of global challenges and the considerable thematic overlap.We argue that developing a transdisciplinary strategy that effectively integrates disciplines,approaches,and knowledge systems will lead to greater and more sustainable impacts,together with a more efficient use of financial resources.Hybrid approaches should be encouraged during planning of future development efforts so that risk reduction is conducted simultaneously with CCA.Transdisciplinary processes are central to generating contextsensitive knowledge to support decisions on CCA and DRR options that minimize trade-offs and maximize synergies and complementarities required to guide sustainable development trajectories.Finally,building codes together with climate and risk-smart research,education,and awareness raising,are identified as priority entry points to materialize the blending of DRR and CCA approaches and effectively reduce risk while mitigating and adapting to climate change.

A Systematic Study of Disaster Risk in Brunei Darussalam and Options for Vulnerability-Based Disaster Risk Reduction

This systematic study of disaster risk and disaster management efforts in Brunei Darussalam uncovers the reasons why floods and landslides in particular continue to inflict significant social,economic,and psychological toll.Vulnerability to the impacts of hydro-meteorological hazards continue to rise despite international awareness and improved disaster governance and information,and regardless of the vast financial and material resources spent on structural and nonstructural measures for disaster relief and community awareness.Our premise is that,a poor diagnosis of the disaster risk issue is at the root of the disaster risk dilemma in Brunei Darussalam.We conducted our vulnerability-centered disaster risk assessment based largely on the Pressure and Release(PAR) Model proposed by Wisner et al.Our research results reveal that:(1)Hazard-risk in Brunei is high due to the impact of global climate change,the country's local geography,and Brunei's relative location in the Asia–Pacific Region.Limited reporting of localized disasters to international databases however fuels the misperception of low disaster risk in Brunei;(2) High community vulnerability and disaster risk is due to limited knowledge,awareness,and motivation among the general population,which prevents effective mitigation and adaptation to low magnitude but recurrent hazardous events;and(3) Partial incorporation of disasterrisk reduction into governance structures and development plans contributes to heightened disaster risks.Integrated frameworks are proposed that can minimize social vulnerability,reduce disaster risk,and enhance community resilience and adaptive capacity as part of a strengthened governance mechanism.Coupled with improvements in preparedness,response,recovery,and reconstruction promoted by the National Disaster Management Centre(NDMC),vulnerability and disaster risk can be minimized,and a more inclusive and sustainable growth can be generated.