Transcriptional regulatory network during axonal regeneration of dorsal root ganglion neurons:laser-capture microdissection and deep sequencing

The key regulators and regeneration-associated genes involved in axonal regeneration of neurons after injury have not been clarified.In high-throughput sequencing,various factors influence the final sequencing results,including the number and size of cells,the depth of sequencing,and the method of cell separation.There is still a lack of research on the detailed molecular expression profile during the regeneration of dorsal root ganglion neuron axon.In this study,we performed lase r-capture microdissection coupled with RNA sequencing on dorsal root ganglion neurons at 0,3,6,and 12 hours and 1,3,and 7 days after sciatic nerve crush in rats.We identified three stages after dorsal root ganglion injury:early(3-12 hours),pre-regeneration(1 day),and regeneration(3-7 days).Gene expression patterns and related function enrichment res ults showed that one module of genes was highly related to axonal regeneration.We verified the up-regulation of activating transcription factor 3(Atf3),Kruppel like factor 6(Klf6),AT-rich inte raction domain 5A(Arid5α),CAMP responsive element modulator(Crem),and FOS like 1,AP-1 transcription factor Subunit(Fosl1) in dorsal root ganglion neurons after injury.Suppressing these transcription factors(Crem,Arid5o,Fosl1 and Klf6) reduced axonal regrowth in vitro.As the hub transcription factor,Atf3 showed higher expression and activity at the preregeneration and regeneration stages.G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1(Gper1),inte rleukin 12a(Il12α),estrogen receptor 1(ESR1),and interleukin 6(IL6) may be upstream factors that trigger the activation of Atf3 during the repair of axon injury in the early stage.Our study presents the detailed molecular expression profile during axonal regeneration of dorsal root ganglion neurons after peripheral nerve injury.These findings may provide reference for the clinical screening of molecular targets for the treatment of peripheral nerve injury.

Regulatory effect of nerve growth factor on release of substance P in cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons of rat

Objective To investigate the regulatory effects of nerve growth factor （NGF） on basal and capsaicin-induced release of neuropeptide substance P （SP） in primary cultured embryonic rat dorsal root ganglion （DRG） neurons. Methods DRGs were dissected from 15-day-old embryonic Wistar rats. DRG neurons were dissociated and cultured, and then exposed to different concentrations of NGF （10 ng/mL, 30 ng/mL, or 100 ng/mL） for 72 h. The neurons cultured in media without NGF served as control. RT-PCR were used for detecting the mRNAs of SP and vanilloid receptor 1 （VR1） in the DRG neurons. The SP basal and capsaicin （100 nmol/L）-induced release in the culture were measured by radioimmunoassay （RIA）. Results SP mRNA and VR1 mRNA expression increased in primary cultured DRG neurons in a dose-dependent manner of NGF. Both basal release and capsaicin-evoked release of SP increased in NGF-treated DRG neurons compared with in control group. The capsaicin-evoked release of SP also increased in a dose-dependent manner of NGF. Conclusion NGF may promote both basal release and capsaicin-evoked release of SP. NGF might increase the sensitivity of nociceptors by increasing the SP mRNA or VR1 mRNA.

Identification of differentially expressed genes in dorsal root ganglion in early diabetic rats

Objective To screen and identify differentially expressed genes in the dorsal root ganglion （DRG） in early experimental diabetic rats. Methods Diabetic model rats were induced by single intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin （STZ）. At the second week after STZ injection, the sensory nerve conduction velocities （SNCV） of sciatic nerve were measured as an indicator of neuropathy. The technique of silver-staining mRNA differential display polymerase chain reaction （DD-PCR） was used to detect the levels of differentially expressed genes in rat DRG. The cDNA fragments that displayed differentially were identified by reverse-hybridization, cloned and sequenced subsequently, and then confirmed by Northern blot. Results The SNCV in the diabetic model group [n = 9, （45.25±10.38） m/s] reduced obviously compared with the control group [n = 8, （60.10± 11.92） m/s] （P 〈 0.05）. Seven distinct cDNA clones, one was up-regulated gene and the others were downregulated ones, were isolated by silver-staining mRNA differential display method and confirmed by Northern blot. According to the results of sequence alignment with GenBank data, majority of the clones had no significant sequence similarity to previously reported genes except only one that showed high homology to 6-pyruvoyl-tetrahydropterin synthase mRNA （accession No., BC059140）, which had not been reported to relate to diabetic neuropathy. Conclusion These differentially expressed genes in the diabetic DRG may contribute to the pathogenesis of diabetic peripheral neuropathy.

Optimization of micropatterned poly(lactic-coglycolic acid) films for enhancing dorsal root ganglion cell orientation and extension

Nerve conduits have been a viable alternative to the ‘gold standard’ autograft for treating small peripheral nerve gap injuries. However, they often produce inadequate functional recovery outcomes and are ineffective in large gap injuries. Ridge/groove surface micropatterning has been shown to promote neural cell orientation and guide growth. However, optimization of the ratio of ridge/groove parameters to promote orientation and extension for dorsal root ganglion （DRG） cells on poly（lactic-co-glycolic acid） （PLGA） films has not been previously conducted. Photolithography and micro-molding were used to define various combinations of ridge/groove dimensions on PLGA films. The DRG cells obtained from chicken embryos were cultured on micropatterned PLGA films for cell orientation and migration evaluation.Biodegradation of the films occurred during the test period, however, this did not cause deformation or distortion of the micropatterns. Results from the DRG cell orientation test suggest that when the ridge/groove ratio equals 1 （ridge/groove width parameters are equal, i.e., 10 μm/10 μm （even））, the degree of alignment depends on the size of the ridges and grooves, when the ratio is smaller than 1 （groove controlled） the alignment increases as the ridge size decreases, and when the ratio is larger than 1 （ridge controlled）, the alignment is reduced as the width of the grooves decreases. The migration rate and neurite extension of DRG neurons were greatest on 10 μm/10 μm and 30 μm/30 μm micropatterned PLGA films. Based on the data, the 10 μm/10 μm and 30 μm/30 μm micropatterned PLGA films are the optimized ridge/groove surface patterns for the construction of nerve repair devices.

Estrogen affects neuropathic pain through upregulating N-methyl-D-aspartate acid receptor 1 expression in the dorsal root ganglion of rats

Estrogen affects the generation and transmission of neuropathic pain,but the specific regulatory mechanism is still unclear.Activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate acid receptor 1（NMDAR1） plays an important role in the production and maintenance of hyperalgesia and allodynia.The present study was conducted to determine whether a relationship exists between estrogen and NMDAR1 in peripheral nerve pain.A chronic sciatic nerve constriction injury model of chronic neuropathic pain was established in rats.These rats were then subcutaneously injected with 17β-estradiol,the NMDAR1 antagonist D（-）-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid（AP-5）,or both once daily for 15 days.Compared with injured drug na？ve rats,rats with chronic sciatic nerve injury that were administered estradiol showed a lower paw withdrawal mechanical threshold and a shorter paw withdrawal thermal latency,indicating increased sensitivity to mechanical and thermal pain.Estrogen administration was also associated with increased expression of NMDAR1 immunoreactivity（as assessed by immunohistochemistry） and protein（as determined by western blot assay） in spinal dorsal root ganglia.This 17β-estradiol-induced increase in NMDAR1 expression was blocked by co-administration with AP-5,whereas AP-5 alone did not affect NMDAR1 expression.These results suggest that 17β-estradiol administration significantly reduced mechanical and thermal pain thresholds in rats with chronic constriction of the sciatic nerve,and that the mechanism for this increased sensitivity may be related to the upregulation of NMDAR1 expression in dorsal root ganglia.

PKCε Mediates Substance P Inhibition of GABA_A Receptors-Mediated Current in Rat Dorsal Root Ganglion

The mechanism underlying the modulatory effect of substance P（SP） on GABA-activated response in rat dorsal root ganglion（DRG） neurons was investigated. In freshly dissociated rat DRG neurons, whole-cell patch-clamp technique was used to record GABA-activated current and sharp electrode intracellular recording technique was used to record GABA-induced membrane depolarization. Application of GABA（1–1000 μmol/L） induced an inward current in a concentration-dependent manner in 114 out of 127 DRG neurons（89.8 %） examined with whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. Bath application of GABA（1–1000 μmol/L） evoked a depolarizing response in 236 out of 257（91.8%） DRG neurons examined with intracellular recordings. Application of SP（0.001–1 μmol/L） suppressed the GABA-activated inward current and membrane depolarization. The inhibitory effects were concentration-dependent and could be blocked by the selective neurokinin 1（NK1） receptors antagonist spantide but not by L659187 and SR142801（1 μmol/L, n=7）, selective antagonists of NK2 and NK3. The inhibitory effect of SP was significantly reduced by the calcium chelator BAPTA-AM, phospholipase C（PLC） inhibitor U73122, and PKC inhibitor chelerythrine, respectively. The PKA inhibitor H-89 did not affect the SP effect. Remarkably, the inhibitory effect of SP on GABA-activated current was nearly completely removed by a selective PKCε inhibitor epilon-V1-2 but not by safingol and LY333531, selective inhibitors of PKCα and PKCβ. Our results suggest that NK1 receptor mediates SP-induced inhibition of GABA-activated current and membrane depolarization by activating intracellular PLC-Ca2＋-PKCε cascade. SP might regulate the excitability of peripheral nociceptors through inhibition of the ＂pre-synaptic inhibition＂ evoked by GABA, which may explain its role in pain and neurogenic inflammation.

Differential Expression of Alpha-Adrenoceptor Subtypes in Rat Dorsal Root Ganglion after Chronic Constriction Injury

Summary： mRNAs of alpha-adrenoceptor （α-AR） subtypes are found in neurons in dorsal root ganglion （DRG） and change after peripheral nerve injury. In this study, the distribution of α-AR subtype proteins was studied in L5 DRG of normal rats and rats with chronic constriction injury of sciatic nerve （CCI）. Using immunofluorescence technique, it was found that α1A-, α1B-, and α2A-AR proteins were expressed in large, medium, and small size neurons in normal DRG, and significantly increased in all size neurons 14 days after CCI. α1D- and α2C-AR was also expressed in all size neurons in normal DRG. However, α1D-AR was significantly increased and α2C-AR was decreased in small size neurons 14 days post CCI. α2B-AR neurons were not detectable in normal and CCI DRG. Co-expression of α1A- and α2A-AR in the same neuron was observed in normal DRG and increased post CCI. Collectively, these results indicated that there is distinct distribution of α-AR subtypes in DRG neurons, and the distribution and levels of expression of α-AR subtypes change differently after CCI. The up-regulation of α-AR subtypes in DRG neurons may play an important role in the process of generating and transmitting neuropathic pain.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in dorsal root ganglion neurons in response to reanastomosis of the distal stoma after nerve grafting

Studies have shown that retreatment of the distal stoma after nerve grafting can stimulate nerve regeneration. The present study attempted to verify the effects of reanastomosis of the distal stoma, after nerve grafting, on nerve regeneration by assessing brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in 2-month-old rats. Results showed that brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in L2-4 dorsal root ganglia began to increase 3 days after autologous nerve grafting post sciatic nerve injury, peaked at 14 days, decreased at 28 days, and reached similar levels to the sham-surgery group at 56 days. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in L2-4 dorsal root ganglia began to increase 3 days after reanastomosis of the distal stoma, 59 days after autologous nerve grafting post sciatic nerve injury, significantly increased at 63 days, peaked at 70 days, and gradually decreased thereafter, but remained higher compared with the sham-surgery group up to 112 days. The results of this study indicate that reanastomosis of the distal stoma after orthotopic nerve grafting stimulated brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in L2.4 dorsal root ganglia.

Characteristics of neural growth and cryopreservation of the dorsal root ganglion using three-dimensional collagen hydrogel culture versus conventional culture

In vertebrates, most somatosensory pathways begin with the activation of dorsal root ganglion(DRG) neurons. The development of an appropriate DRG culture method is a prerequisite for establishing in vitro peripheral nerve disease models and for screening therapeutic drugs. In this study, we compared the changes in morphology, molecular biology, and transcriptomics of chicken embryo DRG cultured on tissue culture plates(T-DRG) versus three-dimensional collagen hydrogels(C-DRG). Our results showed that after 7 days of culture, the transcriptomics of T-DRG and C-DRG were quite different. The upregulated genes in C-DRG were mainly related to neurogenesis, axon guidance, and synaptic plasticity, whereas the downregulated genes in C-DRG were mainly related to cell proliferation and cell division. In addition, the genes related to cycles/pathways such as the synaptic vesicle cycle, cyclic adenosine monophosphate signaling pathway, and calcium signaling pathway were activated, while those related to cell-cycle pathways were downregulated. Furthermore, neurogenesis-and myelination-related genes were highly expressed in C-DRG, while epithelial–mesenchymal transition-, apoptosis-, and cell division-related genes were suppressed. Morphological results indicated that the numbers of branches, junctions, and end-point voxels per C-DRG were significantly greater than those per T-DRG. Furthermore, cells were scattered in T-DRG and more concentrated in C-DRG, with a higher ratio of 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine(EdU)-positive cells in T-DRG compared with C-DRG. C-DRG also had higher S100 calcium-binding protein B(S100 B) and lower α-smooth muscle actin(α-SMA) expression than T-DRG, and contained fewer terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling(TUNEL)-positive cells after 48 hours of serum starvation. After cryopreservation, C-DRG maintained more intact morphological characteristics, and had higher viability and less TUNEL-positive cells than T-DRG. Furthermore, newly formed nerve bundles were able to grow along the existing Schwann cells in C-DRG. These results suggest that C-DRG may be a promising in vitro culture model, with better nerve growth and anti-apoptotic ability, quiescent Schwann cells, and higher viability. Results from this study provide a reference for the construction, storage, and transportation of tissue-engineered nerves. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Aier School of Ophthalmology, Central South University, China(approval No. 2020-IRB16), on March 15, 2020.

Effects of Intrathecally Administerd NaV1.8 Antisense Oligonucleotide on the Expression of Sodium Channel mRNA in Dorsal Root Ganglion

Neuropathic pain has been hypothesized to be the result of aberrant expression and function of sodium channels at the site of injury. To investigate the effects of NaV1.8 antisense oligonucleotide on the expression of sodium channel mRNA in dorsal root ganglion （DRG） neurons in chronic neuropathic pain. 24 Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 200--260 g were anesthetized with the intraperitoneal injection of 300 mg· kg^-1 choral hydrate. The CCI model was made by loose ligation of sciatic nerve trunk by 4--0 chromic gut. The mechanical and thermal pain threshold were measured before operation and 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 days after operation. A PE-10 catheter was implanted in subarachnoid space at lumbar region. On the 7th postoperative day the animals were randomly divided into 4 groups. The drugs were injected intrathecally twice a day for 5 consecutive days in group 2--4. The animals were decapitated 14 days after the surgery. The L4--L6 DRG of the operated side was removed and crushed, and total RNA was extracted with Trizol reagent. The contralateral side was used as control. The change of NaV1.8 sodium channel transcripts was determined by RT-PCR. Pain threshold was significantly lowered after CCI as compared with that in control group and was elevated 3 days after antisense oligonucleotide injection. Sensory neuron specific TTX-R sodium channel NaV1.8 transcript was down-regulated after antisense oligonucleotide injection at the dosage of 45 μg as compared with that in CCI group （P〈0.01）, and it was even greater at the dosage of 90 μg. The intrathecally injected NaV1.8 antisense oligonucleotide can reduce the mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia partially by downregulating the SNS transcript expression.

Involvement of hyperpolarization-activated,cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channels in dorsal root ganglion in neuropathic pain

Dorsal root ganglion(DRG)neurons have peripheral terminals in skin,muscle,and other peripheral tissues,andcentral

Expression of three distinct families of calcium-activated chloride channel genes in the mouse dorsal root ganglion

Objective A calcium-activated chloride current （ICl（Ca）） has been observed in medium-sized sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglion （DRG）. Axotomy of the sciatic nerve induces a similar current in the majority of medium and large diameter neurons. Our aim is to identify the molecule（s） underlying this current. Methods Using conventional and quantitative RT-PCR, we examined the expression in DRG of members of three families of genes, which have been shown to have latch） current inducing properties. Results We showed the detection of transcripts representing several members of these families, i.e. chloride channel calciumactivated （CLCA）, Bestrophin and Tweety gene families in adult DRG, in the normal state and 3 d after sciatic nerve section, a model for peripheral nerve injury. Conclusion Our analysis revealed that that mBestl and Tweety2 appear as the best candidates to play a role in the injury-induced Icl（Ca） in DRG neurons.

srGAP3 promotes neurite outgrowth of dorsal root ganglion neurons by inactivating RAC1

Objective:To explore effect of srGAP3 promotes neurite outgrowth of dorsal root ganglion neurons.Methods:In this study,expression of Slit1 was observed predominantly in the glia.while expression of Robo2 and srCAP3 was detected in sensory neurons of postnatal rat cultured dorsal root ganglion(DRG).Furthermore,upregulation of srGAP3 following sciatic nerve transection was detected by immunohistochemistry and Western blotting.Results:It was observed that inhibition of nenrite outgrowth in cultured adult DRG neurons following treatment with anti-srGAP3 or anti-Robo2 was more effectively(1.5-fold higher) than that following treatment with an anti-BDNF positive control antibody.It demonstrated that srGAP3 interacted with Robo2 and Slit1 protein to decrease Rac1-CTP activity in cultured adult rat DRG neurons and the opposite effect on Rac1-GTP activity was detected by co-immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting analyses following treatment with anti-Robo2 or anti-srGAP3.These data demonstrated a role for srGAP3 in nenrite outgrowth ol DRG sensory neurons.Conclusions:Our observations suggest that srGAP3 promotes neurile outgrowth and filopodial growth cones by interacting with Robo2 to inactivate Rac1 in mammalian DRG neurons.

Effects of TRPA1 activation and inhibition on TRPA1 and CGRP expression in dorsal root ganglion neurons

Transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 （TRPA1） is a key player in pain and neurogenic inflammation, and is localized in nociceptive primary sensory dorsal root ganglion （DRG） neurons. TRPA1 plays a major role in the transmission of nociceptive sensory signals. The generation of neurogenic inflammation appears to involve TRPAl-evoked release of calcitonin gene-related peptide （CGRP）. However, it remains unknown whether TRPA1 or CGRP expression is affected by TRPA 1 activation. Thus, in this study, we examined TRPA 1 and CGRP expression in DRG neurons in vitro after treatment with the TRPA1 activator tbrmaldehyde or the TRPA1 blocker menthol. In addition, we examined the role of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 （ERK1/2） in this process. DRG neurons in culture were exposed to formaldehyde, menthol, the ERK1/2 inhibitor PD98059 ＋ formaldehyde, or PD98059 ＋ menthol. After treatment, real-time polymerase chain reaction, western blot assay and double immunofluorescence labeling were performed to evaluate TRPA1 and CGRP expression in DRG neurons. Formaldehyde elevated mRNA and protein levels of TRPA 1 and CGRP, as well as the proportion of TRPA1- and CGRP-positive neurons. In contrast, menthol reduced TRPA1 and CGRP expression. Furthermore, the effects of lbrmaldehyde, but not menthol, on CGRP expression were blocked by pretreatment with PD98059. PD98059 pretreatment did not affect TRPA1 expression in the presence of formaldehyde or menthol.

Preemptive analgesic effects of low-dose ketamine on growth-associated protein expression in dorsal root ganglion of chronic constriction injury model rats

BACKGROUND： Ketamine is a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate （NMDA） receptor antagonists and plays an important role in the treatment of pain. OBJECTIVE： To analyze the preemptive analgesic effects of different doses of ketamine on growth-associated protein-43 （GAP43） expression in dorsal root ganglion in a rat model of chronic sciatic nerve constricted injury, and to study the differences between high-dose and low-dose ketamine DESIGN： Randomized controlled animal study. SETTING： Medical College of Shantou University. MATERIALS： Thirty-five adult male Sprague Dawley rats were provided by the Experimental Animal Center of Guangzhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Ketamine hydrochloride injection was provided by Hengrui Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Jiangsu. METHODS： This study was performed at the Immunological Laboratory, Medical College of Shantou University from September to December 2006. Model of chronic sciatic nerve constricted injury： after anesthesia, the right sciatic nerve was exposed and ligated l-cm distal to the ischiadic tuberosity with a No. 3-0 cat gut suture. Grouping and intervention： 35 rats were randomly divided into 4 groups： normal control group （n = 5）, chronic constriction injury （CCI） group （n = 10）, low-dose ketamine group （n = 10）, and high-dose ketamine group （n = 10）. Rats in the normal control group did not undergo any surgery or drug intervention. Rats in the CCI group received intraperitoneal injection of saline （1 mL）, and their sciatic nerves were ligated after 10 minutes. Rats in the low-dose ketamine group underwent intraperitoneal injection of ketamine （25 mg/kg） 10 minutes prior to ligation of sciatic nerve; while, rats in the high-dose ketamine group were given intraperitoneal injection of ketamine （50 mg/kg） 10 minutes prior to ligation of sciatic nerve. On the third and the seventh days after surgery, dorsal root ganglion were resected from the sciatic nerve and cut into sections. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES： GAP-43 expression in dorsal root ganglion was detected by immunohistochemistry and image analysis system, as well as semi-quantitative analysis. RESULTS： Thirty-five Sprague Dawley rats were included in the final analysis. Qualitative analysis： GAP-43 expression in the CCI group was higher than in the normal control group. Quantitative analysis： after three post-operative days, GAP-43 expression in the CCI group was significantly higher than in the normal control group （t = 22.919, 7.319, P 〈 0.05）. GAP-43 expression in the low-dose and high-dose ketamine group was significantly lower than in the CCI group （t = 11.166, 26.474, P 〈 0.05）. After seven postoperative days, GAP-43 expression in the low-dose and high-dose ketamine groups was significantly lower than in the CCI group （t = 2.382, 5.016, P 〈 0.05）. CONCLUSION： Preoperative administration of ketamine inhibited the increased GAP-43 expression in dorsal root ganglion during neuropathic pain.

Low-frequency electrical stimulation improves neurite outgrowth of dorsal root ganglion neurons in vitro via upregulating Ca^(2+)-mediated brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression

Short-term, low-frequency electrical stimulation of neural tissues significantly enhances axonal regeneration of peripheral nerves following injury. However, little is known about the mechanisms of electrical stimulation to induce neurite outgrowth. In the present study, short-term, low-frequency electrical stimulation, using identical stimulation parameters of in vivo experiments, was administered to in vitro dorsal root ganglion （DRG） neurons. Enhanced neurite outgrowth, as well as synthesis and release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor （BDNF）, were examined in electrical stimulation-treated DRG neuronal cultures. Because the effects of electrical stimulation on neuronal intracellular signaling molecules are less reported, classic calcium intracellular signals are directly or indirectly involved in electrical stimulation effects on neurons. Cultured DRG neurons were pretreated with the calcium channel blocker nifedipine, followed by electrical stimulation. Results suggested that electrical stimulation not only promoted in vitro neurite outgrowth, but also enhanced BDNF expression. However, nifedipine reduced electrical stimulation-enhanced neurite outgrowth and BDNF biosynthesis. These results suggest that the promoting effects of electrical stimulation on DRG neurite outgrowth could be associated with altered calcium influx, which is involved induction of neuronal BDNF expression and secretion.

The sensitivity of neurons with non-periodic activity to sympathetic stimulation in rat injured dorsal root ganglion

Objective The relationship between compressed dorsal root ganglion （DRG） neurons and firing pattern and sensitivity of neurons was studied in chronically the Hindmarsh-Rose （HR） neuronal model. Methods Spontane- ous activities from single fibers of chronically compressed DRG neurons in rats were recorded, and divided into periodic and non-periodic firing patterns. The sensitivity of the two kinds of firing pattern neuron to sympathetic stimulation （SS） was compared. Result It was found that 27.3% of periodic firing neurons and 93.2% of non-periodic firing neurons responded to SS respectively （ periodic vs non-periodic, P 〈 0.01 ）. The responses to SS with different stimulation time were greater non-periodic firing neurons than periodic firing neurons （P 〈 0.01 ）. The non-periodic firing neurons obviously responded to SS. After the firing pattern of these neurons transformed to periodic firing pattern, their responses to SS disappeared or decreased obviously. The HR neuronal model exhibited a significantly greater response to perturbation in non-periodic （chaotic） firing pattern than in periodic firing pattern. Conelusion The non-periodic firing neurons with deterministic chaos are more sensitive to external stimuli than the periodic firing neurons.

Dorsal root ganglion progenitors differentiate to gamma-aminobutyric acid-and choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons

This study examined the isolation and differentiation of dorsal root ganglion progenitor cells for therapeutic use in neurodegenerative diseases. Rat embryonic dorsal root ganglia progenitors were isolated and purified using the differential adhesion method combined with cytosine arabinoside treatment. After culture in serum-free medium supplemented with B27, basic fibroblast growth factor and epidermal growth factor, these cells remained viable and survived for more than 18 months in vitro. Most cells differentiated to neurons that were immunoreactive for gamma-aminobutyric acid and choline acetyltransferase as detected by immunohistochemical staining. In addition, nerve growth factor and neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor expression were also observed in dorsal root ganglion progenitors and differentiated cells. K252a, an inhibitor that blocks nerve growth factor-induced signaling, inhibited cell survival, suggesting the possible existence of a nerve growth factor autocrine loop in these proliferating cells.

Expression and effect of sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter on dorsal root ganglion neurons in a rat model of chronic constriction injury

Sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter 1 (NKCC1) and potassium-chloride cotransporter 2 (KCC2) are associated with the transmission of peripheral pain.We investigated whether the increase of NKCC1 and KCC2 is associated with peripheral pain transmission in dorsal root ganglion neurons.To this aim,rats with persistent hyperalgesia were randomly divided into four groups.Rats in the control group received no treatment,and the rat sciatic nerve was only exposed in the sham group.Rats in the chronic constriction injury group were established into chronic constriction injury models by ligating sciatic nerve and rats were given bumetanide,an inhibitor of NKCC1,based on chronic constriction injury modeling in the chronic constriction injury + bumetanide group.In the experiment measuring thermal withdrawal latency,bumetanide (15 mg/kg) was intravenously administered.In the patch clamp experiment,bumetanide (10 μg/μL) and acutely isolated dorsal root ganglion neurons (on day 14) were incubated for 1 hour,or bumetanide (5 μg/μL) was intrathecally injected.The Hargreaves test was conducted to detect changes in thermal hyperalgesia in rats.We found that the thermal withdrawal latency of rats was significantly decreased on days 7,14,and 21 after model establishment.After intravenous injection of bumetanide,the reduction in thermal retraction latency caused by model establishment was significantly inhibited.Immunohistochemistry and western blot assay results revealed that the immune response and protein expression of NKCC1 in dorsal root ganglion neurons of the chronic constriction injury group increased significantly on days 7,14,and 21 after model establishment.No immune response or protein expression of KCC2 was observed in dorsal root ganglion neurons before and after model establishment.The Cl^– (chloride ion) fluorescent probe technique was used to evaluate the change of Cl^– concentration in dorsal root ganglion neurons of chronic constriction injury model rats.We found that the relative optical density of N-(ethoxycarbonylmethyl)-6-methoxyquinolinium bromide (a Cl^– fluorescent probe whose fluorescence Cenintensity decreases as Cl– concentration increases) in the dorsal root ganglion neurons of the chronic constriction injury group was significantly decreased on days 7 and 14 after model establishment.The whole-cell patch clamp technique revealed that the resting potential and action potential frequency of dorsal root ganglion neurons increased,and the threshold and rheobase of action potentials decreased in the chronic constriction injury group on day 14 after model establishment.After bumetanide administration,the above indicators were significantly suppressed.These results confirm that CCI can induce abnormal overexpression of NKCC1,thereby increasing the Cl^– concentration in dorsal root ganglion neurons;this then enhances the excitability of dorsal root ganglion neurons and ultimately promotes hyperalgesia and allodynia.In addition,bumetanide can achieve analgesic effects.All experiments were approved by the Institutional Ethics Review Board at the First Affiliated Hospital,College of Medicine,Shihezi University,China on February 22,2017 (approval No.A2017-169-01).

In vitro neuroprotective effects of ciliary neurotrophic factor on dorsal root ganglion neurons with glutamate-induced neurotoxicity

Ciliary neurotrophic factor has neuroprotective effects mediated through signal transducer and Janus kinase（JAK） 2/activator of transcription 3（STAT3） and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase（PI3 K）/Akt signaling pathways.Whether ciliary neurotrophic factor is neuroprotective for glutamate-induced excitotoxicity of dorsal root ganglion neurons is poorly understood.In the present study,the in vitro neuroprotective effects of ciliary neurotrophic factor against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity were determined in a primary culture of dorsal root ganglion neurons from Wistar rat embryos at embryonic day 15.Whether the JAK2/STAT3 and PI3 K/Akt signaling pathways were related to the protective effects of ciliary neurotrophic factor was also determined.Glutamate exposure inhibited neurite outgrowth,cell viability,and growth-associated protein 43 expression and promoted apoptotic neuronal cell death,all of which were reversed by the administration of exogenous ciliary neurotrophic factor.Additionally,preincubation with either JAK2 inhibitor AG490 or PI3 K inhibitor LY294002 blocked the neuroprotective effect of ciliary neurotrophic factor.These data indicate that the two pathways JAK2/STAT3 and PI3 K/Akt play major roles in mediating the in vitro neuroprotective effects of ciliary neurotrophic factor on dorsal root ganglion neurons with glutamate-induced neurotoxicity.