A combined method using Lattice Boltzmann Method(LBM)and Finite Volume Method(FVM)to simulate geothermal reservoirs in Enhanced Geothermal System(EGS)

With the development of industrial activities,global warming has accelerated due to excessive emission of CO_(2).Enhanced Geothermal System(EGS)utilizes deep geothermal heat for power generation.Although porous medium theory is commonly employed to model geothermal reservoirs in EGS,Hot Dry Rock(HDR)presents a challenge as it consists of impermeable granite with zero porosity,potentially distorting the physical interpretation.To address this,the Lattice Boltzmann Method(LBM)is employed to simulate CO_(2)flow within geothermal reservoirs and the Finite Volume Method(FVM)to solve the energy conservation equation for temperature distribution.This combined method of LBM and FVM is imple-mented using MATLAB.The results showed that the Reynolds numbers(Re)of 3,000 and 8,000 lead to higher heat extraction rates from geothermal reservoirs.However,higher Re values may accelerate thermal breakthrough,posing challenges to EGS operation.Meanwhile,non-equilibrium of density in fractures becomes more pronounced during the system's life cycle,with non-Darcy's law becoming significant at Re values of 3,000 and 8,000.Density stratification due to buoyancy effects significantly impacts temperature distribution within geothermal reservoirs,with buoyancy effects at Re=100 under gravitational influence being noteworthy.Larger Re values(3,000 and 8,000)induce stronger forced convection,leading to more uniform density distribution.The addition of proppant negatively affects heat transfer performance in geothermal reservoirs,especially in single fractures.Practical engineering considerations should determine the quantity of proppant through detailed numerical simulations.

Effects of fracture evolution and non-Darcy flow on the thermal performance of enhanced geothermal system in 3D complex fractured rock

In fractured geothermal reservoirs,the fracture networks and internal fluid flow behaviors can significantly impact the thermal performance.In this study,we proposed a non-Darcy rough discrete fracture network(NR-DFN)model that can simultaneously consider the fracture evolution and non-Darcy flow dynamics in studying the thermo-hydro-mechanical(THM)coupling processes for heat extraction in geothermal reservoir.We further employed the model on the Habanero enhanced geothermal systems(EGS)project located in Australia.First,our findings illustrate a clear spatial-temporal variation in the thermal stress and pressure perturbations,as well as uneven spatial distribution of shear failure in 3D fracture networks.Activated shear failure is mainly concentrated in the first fracture cluster.Secondly,channeling flow have also been observed in DFNs during heat extraction and are further intensified by the expansion of fractures driven by thermal stresses.Moreover,the combined effect of non-Darcy flow and fracture evolution triggers a rapid decline in the resulting heat rate and temperature.The NR-DFN model framework and the Habanero EGS's results illustrate the importance of both fracture evolution and non-Darcy flow on the efficiency of EGS production and have the potential to promote the development of more sustainable and efficient EGS operations for stakeholders.

Geothermo-mechanical alterations due to heat energy extraction in enhanced geothermal systems: Overview and prospective directions

Geothermal energy from deep underground (or geological) formations,with or without its combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS),can be a key technology to mitigate anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and meet the 2050 net‐zero carbon emission target.Geothermal resources in low‐permeability and medium‐and high‐temperature reservoirs in sedimentary sequence require hydraulic stimulation for enhanced geothermal systems (EGS).However,fluid migration for geothermal energy in EGS or with potential CO_(2) storage in a CO_(2)‐EGS are both dependent on the in situ flow pathway network created by induced fluid injection.These thermo‐mechanical interactions can be complex and induce varying alterations in the mechanical response when the working fluid is water (in EGS) or supercritical CO_(2)(in CO_(2)‐EGS),which could impact the geothermal energy recovery from geological formations.Therefore,there is a need for a deeper understanding of the heat extraction process in EGS and CO_(2)‐EGS.This study presents a systematic review of the effects of changes in mechanical properties and behavior of deep underground rocks on the induced flow pathway and heat recovery in EGS reservoirs with or without CO_(2) storage in CO_(2) ‐EGS.Further,we proposed waterless‐stimulated EGS as an alternative approach to improve heat energy extraction in EGS.Lastly,based on the results of our literature review and proposed ideas,we recommend promising areas of investigation that may provide more insights into understanding geothermo‐mechanics to further stimulate new research studies and accelerate the development of geothermal energy as a viable clean energy technology.

Catalog of Enhanced Geothermal Systems based on Heat Sources

It is common sense that a deeper well implies higher temperature in the exploration of deep geothermal resources, especially with hot dry rock(HDR) geothermal resources, which are generally exploited in terms of enhanced geothermal systems(EGS). However, temperature is always different even at the same depth in the upper crust due to different heat sources. This paper summarizes the heat sources and classifies them into two types and five sub-types: crustorigin(partial melting, non-magma-generated tectonic events and radiogenic heat production), and mantle-origin(magma and heat conducted from the mantle). A review of global EGS sites is presented related to the five sub-types of heat sources. According to our new catalog, 71% of EGS sites host mantle-origin heat sources. The temperature logging curves indicate that EGS sites which host mantle-origin magma heat sources have the highest temperature. Therefore, high heat flow(>100 m W/m^(2)) regions with mantle-origin magma heat sources should be highlighted for the future exploration of EGS. The principle to identify the heat source is elucidated by applying geophysical and geochemical methods including noble gas isotope geochemistry and lithospheric thermal structure analysis. This analytical work will be helpful for the future exploration and assessment of HDR geothermal resources.

Comparative Study of Acid and Alkaline Stimulants with Granite in an Enhanced Geothermal System

The Enhanced Geothermal System(EGS) is an artificial geothermal system that aims to economically extract heat from hot dry rock(HDR) through the creation of an artificial geothermal reservoir. Chemical stimulation is thought to be an effective method to create fracture networks and open existing fractures in hot dry rocks by injecting chemical agents into the reservoir to dissolve the minerals. Granite is a common type of hot dry rock. In this paper, a series of chemical stimulation experiments were implemented using acid and alkaline agents under high temperature and pressure conditions that mimic the environment of formation. Granite rock samples used in the experiments are collected from the potential EGS reservoir in the Matouying area, Hebei, China. Laboratory experimental results show that the corrosion ratio per unit area of rock is 3.2% in static acid chemical experiments and 0.51% in static alkaline chemical experiments. The permeability of the core is increased by 1.62 times in dynamic acid chemical experiments and 2.45 times in dynamic alkaline chemical experiments. A scanning electron microscope analysis of the core illustrates that secondary minerals, such as chlorite, spherical silica, and montmorillonite, were formed, due to acid-rock interaction with plagioclase being precipitated by alkaline-rock interactions. Masking agents in alkaline chemical agents can slightly reduce the degree of plagioclase formation. A chemical simulation model was built using TOUGHREACT, the mineral dissolution and associated ion concentration variation being reproduced by this reactive transport model.

Multi-objective Optimization of Geothermal Extraction from the Enhanced Geothermal System in Qiabuqia Geothermal Field, Gonghe Basin

A geothermal demonstration exploitation area will be established in the Enhanced Geothermal System of the Qiabuqia field, Gonghe Basin, Qinghai–Xizang Plateau in China. Selection of operational parameters for geothermal field extraction is thus of great significance to realize the best production performance. A novel integrated method of finite element and multi-objective optimization has been employed to obtain the optimal scheme for thermal extraction from the Gonghe Basin. A thermal-hydraulic-mechanical coupling model(THM) is established to analyze the thermal performance. From this it has been found that there exists a contraction among different heat extraction indexes. Parametric study indicates that injection mass rate(Q_(in)) is the most sensitive parameter to the heat extraction, followed by well spacing(WS) and injection temperature(T_(in)). The least sensitive parameter is production pressure(p_(out)). The optimal combination of operational parameters acquired is such that(T_(in), p_(out), Q_(in), WS) equals(72.72°C, 30.56 MPa, 18.32 kg/s, 327.82 m). Results indicate that the maximum electrical power is 1.41 MW for the optimal case over 20 years. The thermal break has been relieved and the pressure difference reduced by 8 MPa compared with the base case. The optimal case would extract 50% more energy than that of a previous case and the outcome will provide a remarkable reference for the construction of Gonghe project.

The role of temperature‐enhanced fault closure in promoting postinjection pressure diffusion and seismicity in enhanced geothermal systems

Post shut‐in seismic events in enhanced geothermal systems(EGSs)occur predominantly at the outer rim of the co‐injection seismic cloud.The concept of postinjection fracture and fault closure near the injection well has been proposed and validated as a mechanism for enhancing post shut‐in pressure diffusion that promotes seismic hazard.This phenomenon is primarily attributed to the poro‐elastic closure of fractures resulting from the reduction of wellbore pressure after injection termination.However,the thermal effects in EGSs,mainly including heat transfer and thermal stress,may not be trivial and their role in postinjection fault closure and pressure evolution needs to be explored.In this study,we performed numerical simulations to analyze the relative importance of poro‐elasticity,heat transfer,and thermo‐elasticity in promoting postinjection fault closure and pressure diffusion.The numerical model wasfirst validated against analytical solutions in terms offluid pressure diffusion and against heatedflow‐through experiments in terms of thermal processes.We then quantified and distinguished the contribution of each individual mechanism by comparing four different shut‐in scenarios simulated under different coupled conditions.Our results highlight the importance of poro‐elastic fault closure in promoting postinjection pressure buildup and seismicity,and suggest that heat transfer can further augment the fault closure‐induced pressure increase and thus potentially intensify the postinjection seismic hazard,with minimal contribution from thermo‐elasticity.

Thermo-economic Investigation of an Enhanced Geothermal System Organic Rankine Cycle and Combined Heating and Power System

As a potentially viable renewable energy, Enhanced Geothermal Systems(EGSs) extract heat from hot dry rock(HDR) reservoirs to produce electricity and heat, which promotes the progress towards carbon peaking and carbon neutralization. The main challenge for EGSs is to reduce the investment cost. In the present study, thermo-economic investigations of EGS projects are conducted. The effects of geofluid mass flow rate, wellhead temperature and loss rate on the thermo-economic performance of the EGS organic Rankine cycle(ORC) are studied. A performance comparison between EGS-ORC and the EGS combined heating and power system(CHP) is presented. Considering the CO_(2)emission reduction benefits, the influence of carbon emission trading price on the levelized cost of energy(LCOE) is also presented. It is indicated that the geofluid mass flow rate is a critical parameter in dictating the success of a project. Under the assumed typical working conditions, the LCOE of EGS-ORC and EGS-CHP systems are 24.72 and 16.1 cents/k Wh, respectively. Compared with the EGS-ORC system, the LCOE of the EGS-CHP system is reduced by 35%. EGS-CHP systems have the potential to be economically viable in the future. With carbon emission trading prices of 12.76 USD/ton, the LCOE can be reduced by approximately 8.5%.

Conventional Geothermal Systems and Unconventional Geothermal Developments: An Overview

This paper provides an overview of conventional geothermal systems and unconventional geothermal developments as a common reference is needed for discussions between energy professionals. Conventional geothermal systems have the heat, permeability and fluid, requiring only drilling down to °C, normal heat flow or decaying radiogenic granite as heat sources, and used in district heating. Medium-temperature (MT) 100°C - 190°C, and high-temperature (HT) 190°C - 374°C resources are mostly at plate boundaries, with volcanic intrusive heat source, used mostly for electricity generation. Single well capacities are °C - 500°C) and a range of depths (1 m to 20 Km), but lack permeability or fluid, thus requiring stimulations for heat extraction by conduction. HVAC is 1 - 2 m deep and shallow geothermal down to 500 m in wells, both capturing °C, with °C are either advanced by geothermal developers at <7 Km depth (Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), drilling below brittle-ductile transition zones and under geothermal fields), or by the Oil & Gas industry (Advanced Geothermal Systems, heat recovery from hydrocarbon wells or reservoirs, Superhot Rock Geothermal, and millimeter-wave drilling down to 20 Km). Their primary aim is electricity generation, relying on closed-loops, but EGS uses fractures for heat exchange with earthquake risks during fracking. Unconventional approaches could be everywhere, with shallow geothermal already functional. The deeper and hotter unconventional alternatives are still experimental, overcoming costs and technological challenges to become fully commercial. Meanwhile, the conventional geothermal resources remain the most proven opportunities for investments and development.

裂缝分布对CO_(2)-EGS热提取的影响研究

地热能是一种极具潜力的可再生能源,已引起广泛关注。在深部地热储层中,人工改造后形成的复杂裂缝网络为热提取提供了重要通道,裂缝空间分布将会直接影响热提取率。为探究裂缝不同空间分布对采热性能的影响,以幂律分布的裂缝网络为基础,采用TOUGH2MP-FLAC^(3D)框架下建立的THM耦合模型,系统研究不同裂缝长度指数(a)、密度(β)的裂缝网络对新型增强型地热系统(CO_(2)-EGS)采热性能的影响。并以热突破时间、EGS寿命、产热率与总产热能以及产热效率5种评价指标对储层热性能进行详细评估。结果表明,在恒速注入的情况下,裂缝长度指数a越大,长裂缝占比越小,注采井之间形成的贯穿裂缝数量越少,裂缝宽度越大,致使生产温度、产热率降低越快,更早达到热突破,从而缩短EGS寿命,降低总产热能。当a相同时,裂缝密度β越大,裂缝数量越多,生产温度与产热率降低越慢,延长热突破时间与EGS寿命,提高产热量。热突破时间最高可增加15.65 a,EGS寿命增加约10 a,总产热能增加约22.77%。而当长度指数a增长时,热突破时间最多缩短了13.1 a,总产热能降低20.8%。因此,长裂缝占比提高和裂缝密度增加有助于提高注采井之间裂缝的连通性,促进流体对流换热,更好地发挥裂缝在热开采中的作用,提高采热量。研究结果为干热岩造缝增渗改造提供一定的理论指导。

裂隙岩体渗透率与应力耦合对EGS采热性能的影响

在增强型地热系统(enhanced geothermal system,EGS)热开采过程中,储层渗透率受应力的影响而动态变化。为揭示裂隙岩体渗透特性和应力之间的耦合作用对系统采热性能的影响,建立双重介质热流固(thermo-hydro-mechanical,THM)耦合模型,分析基质和裂隙渗透率随应力动态变化时储层THM三场变化规律。结果表明:在热应力与水压力共同作用下,基质渗透率逐渐减小,裂隙渗透率呈指数式增加,采热速率主要由裂隙渗透率的动态变化决定,但如果忽略基质渗透率的动态变化,预测的裂隙渗透率比实际提高41.8%,热突破时间提前,会低估近2年的系统运行寿命。因此,同时考虑裂隙和基质渗透率与应力的耦合作用对合理评价EGS系统使用寿命有重要意义。

美国干热岩“地热能前沿瞭望台研究计划”与中美典型EGS场地勘查现状对比

美国能源部正在实施干热岩"地热能前沿瞭望台研究计划"(FORGE计划)。它是以经典干热岩定义的干热岩勘查开发为约束,通过增强型地热系统(EGS)示范工程建设实践,形成新一代EGS试验平台。美国本着"可复制的结果=巨大的潜力"的理念,实现干热岩勘查开发技术新突破,以满足美国1亿家庭绿色电力供应为实际应用目标。中美典型EGS场地勘查现状对比结果表明:犹他州米尔福德与青海省共和县恰卜恰两个典型EGS场地具可比性,大致处于"并跑"的水平;在天然裂隙系统、原位地应力场、压裂参数获取与压裂方案制定等方面,米尔福德EGS场地有所超前。据此建议有关部门加快青海省共和县恰卜恰EGS场地进入勘查开发阶段,以提高我国干热岩勘查开发技术水平,早日实现EGS工程化。

松辽盆地增强型地热系统(EGS)地热能开发热-水动力耦合过程

增强型地热系统地热能开发涉及到热和水动力的耦合,对应的温度和压力场时空变化特征是评价地热开发效果的关键问题。基于松辽盆地徐家围子深部地质条件,采用TOUGH2进行了地热能开发过程中裂隙-孔隙介质系统中温度和压力变化的数值模拟,分析了不同埋深水平情况下地热能开发的差别,研究了孔隙基质和裂隙介质的渗透率和孔隙度、岩石导热系数、井径、注入压力、注入温度及裂隙周围基质因素对地热能开发的影响。结果表明:采用定压力开发时生产井抽出控制整个区域的压力分布,压力梯度在注入井区域较大,并随着开发的进行,注入井的注入对压力的影响逐渐增大;温度由注入井到生产井逐渐增大,并随着开发的进行温度降低范围逐渐向生产井扩大;质量和热提取速率随时间逐渐减小。不同埋深位置的模拟结果显示,埋深大的温度相对较高,水的流动性较强,质量和热提取速率较高,压力和温度变化幅度均较大。裂隙系统的渗透率、注入井/生产井压力和注入温度、井径对深部地热开采过程中的压力和温度影响较大,从而影响热的提取效率;而孔隙基质的渗透率和孔隙度、裂隙介质的裂隙度和岩石的热传导系数的影响并不明显。

渤海湾盆地应用增强型地热系统(EGS)的地质分析

全球地下3～10km普遍分布的高温低渗岩体中蕴藏着巨大的热能,利用增强型地热系统(EGS)技术可以实现这部分热能的开发。本文通过对近年增强型地热系统的研究进展和经验的综述,结合区域地质分析和有限元模拟,探讨了渤海湾盆地应用增强型地热系统开发的可行性。我国渤海湾盆地处于岩石圈减薄区,区域大地热流值高,地热资源丰富;基于该区的岩石圈热状态、基底构造形态对渤海湾盆地典型剖面地下10km内的地温场进行了有限元模拟,结果表明,在基底凹陷区埋深5km处地温可达150～180℃,地温等温线随基底起伏而变化。相比美国、欧洲现有的EGS开发地区,渤海湾盆地具有相似的地温条件和地质条件,适于开发增强型地热系统。通过分区块的资源概算,得出渤海湾盆地陆上部分的增强型地热系统可及资源量可达3775GW,具有广阔的开发前景。

EGS水岩作用对地热储层孔渗特征影响的模拟研究

增强型地热系统(EGS)是一种开发利用深层地热能的工程,在工程的长期运行过程中水岩作用对储层孔渗特征的影响不容忽视。以松辽盆地泉头组流纹岩和青海贵德扎仓沟地区花岗岩为研究对象,借助TOUGHREACT程序模拟EGS水热循环过程中岩性和注入水温度对水岩作用的影响,并分析研究水岩作用引起的储层孔渗特征的变化。结果表明:模拟时间达到10 a时,储层的孔隙度和渗透率在注入井附近增大,在靠近生产井的区域减小。

增强地热系统EGS的人工热储技术

分析了增强地热系统、干热岩发电原理,研究了系统建立人工热储的关键技术,包括人工致裂、监测、裂隙网络的连通、封闭水流循环、热储系统建模等。最后分析了芬顿山、Hijiori、苏尔士大型试验站的人工热储应用实例。

热补偿条件下双井EGS产能和寿命预测方法研究

增强型地热系统(Enhanced Geothermal System,EGS)作为干热岩资源开采的有效手段,具有广阔的发展前景和巨大的利用价值,因此,对其进行产能和寿命预测显得尤为重要。为实现双井EGS产能和寿命预测,利用理论推导和数值模拟的方法对不同工况下的EGS系统进行产能分析,最终得到双井EGS产能和寿命预测方法。首先,以Dupuit公式与吸放热公式为基础,建立EGS产能和寿命控制方程,为EGS寿命预测提供理论支撑。然后,根据地下水流动方程和热传导方程,结合牛顿冷却公式,分析出影响EGS产能和寿命控制方程中4个未知参数(热储减少热量、大地热补偿热量、生产井平均产出温度和热储形状系数)的5个因素分别为热储初始温度、热媒介质注入温度、热储体积、热储比表面积和EGS运行时间。在考虑大地热补偿的情况下,利用双井EGS的3维数值模拟分别对不同工况下的热储发生热突破时各未知参数的影响因素进行分析、修正和定量化研究,得到4个未知参数随5个因素变化的具体预测公式。基于上述结果得到一种适用于双井EGS产能和寿命的预测方法,即:利用EGS产能和寿命控制方程、4个未知参数的预测公式及热储渗透率对双井EGS产能和寿命进行预测。最后,利用于双井EGS产能和寿命的预测方法预测已有文献的工况并进行比较,两者结果较吻合,证明了控制方程和预测公式的适用性和预测方法的准确性。

换热单元体展布特征对水平井多级压裂的EGS采热的影响

借鉴页岩气等低渗透非常规油气资源体积压裂技术,水平井分段多级压裂技术可用于构建增强型地热系统(EGS)人工热储。基于EGS储层压裂呈现出的较强非均匀性,构建EGS水平双井非均匀多级压裂模型,通过调整换热单元体(HTU)厚度、展布类型分别设计多组算例,研究换热单元体展布特征对水平井多级压裂的EGS采热的影响。为表征换热单元体展布的非均匀性,引入优势厚度比的概念。研究结果表明:非均匀压裂的热储层中,系统产出温度与压裂级数呈不严格的正相关性,还受到换热单元体展布特征的影响,与储层换热单元体的优势厚度比呈负相关性;非均匀压裂的热储层中,通过封堵劣势换热单元体或增强储层压裂使换热单元体均匀化,均可增强系统的采热性能。

水流损失和热补偿共同作用对增强型地热系统(EGS)产能影响的研究

基于青海共和盆地-3705m地热田实测数据,结合流固耦合传热理论并运用Comsol软件,建立了离散型裂隙岩体流体传热模型。考虑水流损失和热补偿共同作用,模拟得到了开采过程中上、下岩层(盖层和垫层)为绝热不渗透、传热不渗透、渗透传热时,储层(上、下岩层和压裂层)温度场的变化特征,分析了产出流量、水流损失、产出温度、产热速率的变化规律。研究结果表明:采热过程中产出流量始终小于注入流量;产出流量增幅速率先增大后减小,最后趋于稳定,前3a产出流量增幅超过总增幅量的3/4;忽略水流损失,将高估产热速率,采热初期甚至达到考虑水流损失时产热速率的3倍以上;考虑水流损失,产热速率呈先快速上升再趋于稳定后逐渐下降的趋势,最优开采时间为3a^11a;研究上、下岩层对产出温度的影响,仅考虑传热,采热寿命延长5.43%,同时考虑渗流传热时,采热寿命延长2.71%;采热前9a,水流损失占主导作用,即流入上、下岩层水流损失对产热速率的影响高于热补偿效应,开采10a后,热补偿效应占主导作用;同时考虑水流损失和热补偿效应得到的产热速率变化规律与实际工程更为符合,建议选择低渗透能力的上、下岩层延长增强型地热系统(EGS)运行时间。

EGS地热能开发过程中水岩作用对热储层特征的影响

增强型地热系统(EGS)是一种从地下深部低孔低渗高温岩层提取大量热能的能量利用工程,通过注水孔注入的冷水在高温岩层中循环实现热量的提取。在EGS地热能开发过程中,冷水的循环扰乱了地下深部水岩系统的热平衡和化学平衡,导致部分矿物溶解或沉淀,进而改变储层的孔隙度和渗透率。文章利用不锈钢密闭反应釜进行室内高温水岩反应试验,结合数值模拟分析水岩相互作用对EGS热储层特征的影响。研究结果表明,注入冷水到花岗岩热储层中导致石英矿物沉淀,其相对质量分数增大13%,碱性长石、斜长石、黑云母矿物溶解,其相对质量分数分别减小7%,5%,1%,总体上使得溶液中Si元素浓度降低,Ca2+,Na+,K+浓度升高,储层孔隙度、渗透率均随时间逐渐增大,提高了EGS储层地热能开发的热提取效率。