Interrelationships between Length of the Day, Moon Distance, Phanerozoic Geodynamic Cycles, Tidal Dissipation and Earth’s Core: Review and Analysis

The rotation of the Earth and the related length of the day (LOD) are predominantly affected by tidal dissipation through the Moon and the growth of the Earth’s core. Due to the increased concentration of mass around the rotation axis of the spinning Earth during the growth of the core the rotation should have been accelerated. Controversially the tidal dissipation by the Moon, which is mainly dependent on the availability of open shallow seas and the kind of Moon escape from a nearby position, acts towards a deceleration of the rotating Earth. Measurements of LOD for Phanerozoic and Precambrian times open ways to solve questions concerning the geodynamical history of the Earth. These measurements encompass investigations of growth patterns in fossils and depositional patterns in sediments (Cyclostratigraphy, Tidalites, Stromatolites, Rhythmites). These patterns contain information on the LOD and on the changing distance between Earth and Moon and can be used as well for a discussion about the growth of the Earth’s core. By updating an older paper with its simple approach as well as incorporating newly published results provided by the geoscientific community, a moderate to fast growth of the core in a hot early Earth will be favored controversially to the assumption of a delayed development of the core in an originally cold Earth. Core development with acceleration of Earth’s rotation and the contemporaneous slowing down due to tidal dissipation during the filling of the ocean may significantly interrelate.

Dark Galaxies, Sun-Earth-Moon Interaction, Tunguska Event—Explained by WUM

Great experimental results and observations achieved by Astronomy in the last decades revealed new unexplainable phenomena. Astronomers have conclusive new evidence that a recently discovered “dark galaxy” is, in fact, an object the size of a galaxy, made entirely of dark matter. They found that the speed of the Earth’s rotation varies randomly each day. 115 years ago, the Tunguska Event was observed, and astronomers still do not have an explanation of It. Main results of the present article are: 1) Dark galaxies explained by the spinning of their Dark Matter Cores with the surface speed at equator less than the escape velocity. Their Rotational Fission is not happening. Extrasolar systems do not emerge;2) 21-cm Emission explained by the self-annihilation of Dark Matter particles XIONs (5.3 μeV);3) Sun-Earth-Moon Interaction explained by the influence of the Sun’s and the Moon’s magnetic field on the electrical currents of the charged Geomagma (the 660-km layer), and, as a result, the Earth’s daylength varies;4) Tunguska Event explained by a huge atmospheric explosion of the Superbolide, which was a stable Dark Matter Bubble before entering the Earth’s atmosphere.

Earth: Review Article

Every year on 22 April, we have celebrated Earth Day and the beautiful planet we call home. Earth Day, established in 1970, has been used to highlight our planet’s environmental challenges and raise awareness of the importance of protecting our world for future generations [1]. To provide the protection of our planet, we should explain Earth’s environmental challenges to the best of our knowledge in frames of contemporary Geophysics. This paper gives a short overview of the developed Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) and pay particular attention to the principal role of Dark Matter (DM) in the Earth’s life. In this manuscript, we discuss different aspects of the Earth: a condition of Young Earth before the Beginning of life on It;Internal Structure;“The 660-km Boundary” that we named Geomagma;Random Variations of Earth’s Rotational Speed on a daily basis;Origin of Moon;Expanding Earth;Internal Heating;Faint Young Sun paradox;Geocorona and Planetary Coronas;High-Energy Atmospheric Physics. WUM proposed principally different ways to solve the problems of Internal Heating, Origin of the Moon, and Faint Young Sun paradox based on DM core of the Earth. The Model revealed the fact that the Sun Activity causes the Geomagma Activity and, as a consequence, Random Variations of Earth’s Rotational Speed by the varying Sun’s magnetic field.

Sun-Moon-Earth Interactions, External Factors for Earthquakes

The aim of this paper is to continue analyzing the interactions in the three-body system made up of the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth. First, we review new details about Moon-Earth connections, with a special focus on mechanical forces. Following, we expand the study to consider the pair Sun-Earth, with calculations for electromagnetic forces. The objective in both cases is to know how mechanical and electromagnetic forces affect seismological events on Earth. Our calculations found that Solar Cycles have no direct interaction with earthquake variations. Instead, we established that there is an internal discrepancy for quakes below 35 km detected in some of the regions analyzed. The results indicate that geomagnetic variations must be studied next to understand their connections to earthquakes.

Just a Bit of Physics Can Tell So Much: A Unique Story of the Start of the Earth-Moon System

The start of the Earth-Moon system has been studied to show that this was an exceptionally violent event. One result was that Earth became the terrestrial planet with the highest average density. Another result was that Earth acquired enough mass and radioactive elements that it is expected to maintain a molten core region and magnetic field for the expected life of the Earth. Earth alone of the terrestrial planets was then able to develop plate tectonics as a long term energy release mechanism. The dipole magnetic field of the Sun reverses periodically, currently at the rate of about every 11 years, so that there was a magnetic braking action acting on the core of Venus that accounts for the slow rotation of that planet. A key result is that the impact event that resulted in the Earth-Moon system led to long term stability on Earth that allowed the eventual development of complex life forms on the Earth.

Sun-Moon-Earth Interactions with Larger Earthquakes Worldwide Connections

The aim of this paper is to investigate the effects on Moon-Earth gravitational variations and Moon phases during three Solar Cycless (SC22, SC23, SC24). The first part defines gravitational forces as a force that creates an oscillation when the moon is reaching the Perigee, the smallest distance between the Moon and Earth during its rotational movement around Earth. It has a small amplitude and large period. Unlikely other authors, we do not find a direct connection between the Moon phases and big earthquakes worldwide. The study is performed through the three Solar Cycless, which refers to the variation in the Sun’s magnetic field. However, a strong indication appeared that almost the totality of the largest quakes studied happened preferentially at the subduction zones, in the Southern Hemisphere. In this research we apply experimental data to find the tide force, and the Perigee position is an experimental value. Other parameters are experimental, such as the length of Solar Cycless, the Moon’s phases connected to each earthquake where M ≥ 7.5. The calculations use regression in time to find the results. Our model considers in the regression the period 1986-2018.

Influence of the layered Moon and Earth’s orientation on lunar rotation

One of the most efficient ways to probe the lunar inner structure at present is through the study of its rotation.Range and range rate(Doppler) data between the Chang’E-3 lander and station on the Earth were collected from the beginning of the Chang’E-3 lunar mission in 2013.These observation data,taken together with the existing lunar laser ranging data,provide a new approach to extend research on the Earth-Moon system.The high precision of current observation data imposes exacting demands,making it necessary to include previously neglected factors.In this paper,motivated by progress of the Chinese lunar exploration project and to use its data in the near future,two lunar models:a one-layer model and a two-layer model with a fluid core,were applied to the rotational equations based on our implemented algorithm of the Moon’s motion.There was a difference of about 0.5′′in φ and ψ,but 0.2′′in θ between the two models.This result confirms that stratification of the inner structure of the Moon can be inferred from rotation data.We also added precise Earth rotation parameters in our model;the results show that this factor is negligible at present,due to the limited precision of the existing data.These results will help us understand the rotational process clearly and build a more realistic Earth-Moon model when we combine Lunar Laser Ranging data with high precision radio data to fit lunar motion in the near future.

Formation of the Moon and Its Influence on Earth’s Environment

There are many hypotheses about the formation and evolution of the Moon,but all these hypotheses have their own questions that are hard to answer,therefore incredible.So by analyzing the evolution of the Earth,the author finds that after the formation of the Earth’s spherical structure,Earth’s polar vortices and active volcanoes can frequently eject large amount of material into the upper air or even above the stratosphere,making the Earth’s atmosphere contain a lot of dust,volcanic ash,water vapor,aerosol and so on.As the Earth rotates,these materials gradually form“nebulae”around the Earth.The lunar prototype was formed near the stratosphere,it keeps colliding and accreting nebular material near its orbit and getting bigger and bigger,and gradually moves away from the Earth under the impact of planetsimals or during the contraction of the Earth,becoming today’s massive Moon.After the formation of the Moon,it can not only light up the night,but also call the wind and rain and regulate global climate change to create an environment suiting for the living things.

Why Is the Moon Gradually Moving away from the Earth

Finding the cause of the Moon leaving the Earth is the first key to open the door of cosmic galaxies.Although some people believe the cause of the Moon leaving the Earth to be the tidal bulges on the Earth exerting a gravitational pull on the Moon,which tries to “speed up” the Moon,yet careful research shows this view is doubtful.Thus the author has studied the real causes for the Moon moving away from the Earth again,and found that the migration of the Moon away from the Earth is mainly due to the impacts of prograde planetsimals and the contraction of the growing Earth.Other satellites leaving their parent planets for the same reason.

Design of low-energy transfer from lunar orbit to asteroid in the Sun-Earth-Moon system

Asteroid exploration trajectories which start from a lunar orbit are investigated in this work.It is assumed that the probe departs from lunar orbit and returns to the vicinity of Earth,then escapes from the Earth by performing a perigee maneuver.A low-energy transfer in Sun-EarthMoon system is adopted.First,the feasible region of lowenergy transfer from lunar orbit to perigee within 5 000 km height above the Earth surface in Sun-Earth-Moon system is calculated and analyzed.Three transfer types are found,i.e.,large maneuver and fast transfers,small maneuver and fast transfers,and disordered and slow transfers.Most of feasibility trajectories belong to the first two types.Then,the lowenergy trajectory leg from lunar orbit to perigee and a heliocentric trajectory leg from perigee to asteroid are patched by a perigee maneuver.The optimal full-transfer trajectory is obtained by exploiting the differential evolution algorithm.Finally,taking 4179 Toutatis asteroid as the target,some low-energy transfer trajectories are obtained and analyzed.

Effect of the Earth Movement on the Measured Moon Trajectory

All lunar theories within the framework of classical mechanics are based on the assumption of an inertial frame of reference,which is physically non-existent and has scarcely been examined in previous studies.This paper aims to examine the consequence of giving up the assumption of the existence of an inertial frame and the relevant influence on the measured moon trajectories.The general formulation of the lunar orbit is built from the perspective of the new general system theory(NGST),where the moon is modelled as a 6-DOF living body and active forces are introduced.This formulation can be retrograded to the framework of classical mechanics.Firstly,we calculate the active forces on the moon when a fixed earth movement and a fixed moon movement are assumed in the god-coordinate system.Then we investigate what will happen to the measured moon trajectory in the human-coordinate system when the earth movement and other parameters are perturbed in several cases.It is found that the results are sometimes inconsistent with the explanations using inertia forces in classical mechanics but can be well explained by NGST.We also discovered that the active forces on the moon should be adjusted constantly to maintain the stable measured moon trajectory.

Earth-Moon Barycentre Excursions and Anomalous Quaternary Sea Level Highstands

Plate tectonics is driven by Earth-Moon barycentre shifts in the lower mantle. The eastern Canary Islands have geographic and geological conditions derived from the movements of the Central American plates. Some features of these islands are influenced by the rotation of the Earth from west to east in the evolution of the marine currents that surround them and the opening of the North Atlantic to the North Pole with little dependence of the glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA). In addition, their position with respect to the Tropic of Cancer and the African continent affect the north-south and east-west climatic change dynamics and their tectonic stability respectively. Dated lavas contain marine and aeolian deposits and some of the Pleistocene marine deposits indicate higher sea level in cooler circumstances, which is anomalous. Relating those marine deposits produced during the warmest interglacial, the last interglacial and the Holocene with their equivalents in the Southern Hemisphere, they reflect shifts in the barycentre. Thanks to Holocene radiocarbon, topographic and day length data and alkenone temperature, we describe a mechanism by which the oscillation of the Moon’s inclination (and declination) reaches extreme values (14ºand 34ºabout 4.9ºmore than current values) approximately every 1450 years. These values occur when there is a harmonic distortion in surface areas of the Earth’s crust as response associated with oscillations in the displacements of the barycentre of the Earth-Moon system. As the declination influences the movement of oceanic waters, there is also a relationship with the Bond Events of the North Atlantic, of unknown cause until now.

电离层对月基对地观测平台辐射成像的影响

月基对地观测是一种全新的空间观测手段,其将月球作为搭载平台对地球进行持续长期观测,具有超大可观测范围、高测绘带幅宽、多角度成像、高时间分辨率和长使用寿命等优势。地球电离层位于地表以上至1000 km的高空区域,是影响月基对地观测成像质量的重要因素。为探索月基对地观测平台下热红外及微波辐射传输特性,研究开展了地球电离层对月基对地观测平台热红外和微波辐射成像影响分析的工作,并模拟不同纬度区域月基微波辐射亮温衰减值。首先根据Chapman分布定量化分析电离层电子浓度、折射率变化规律,再结合观测天顶角、碰撞频率等参数计算穿过电离层过程中不同高度处衰减及传输路径,最终采用积分方式获取热红外和微波在电离层中能量衰减量。结果表明,月基对地观测平台热红外和微波成像链路中电离层中造成的能量衰减与碰撞频率、热红外波长和观测天顶角有关,且地球电离层对月基对地观测平台微波成像的影响大于热红外成像的影响。此外,低纬度区域月基微波辐射受电离层衰减影响较大,月基微波亮温值降低约1.304 K;中纬度次之。

不稳定地月循环轨道的混沌控制方法

针对现有的地月循环轨道稳定控制方法仅对少数轨道有效的缺点,本文提出了一种圆型限制性三体问题下不稳定地月循环轨道的混沌控制方法。首先在循环轨道上选择候选不动点及其对应的庞加莱截面图;然后通过混沌控制方法将轨道在庞加莱截面图上的投影点移动到不动点的稳定方向上;再计算轨道被控制后的目标点和轨道投影点到不动点之间偏差距离的比例,依次对比例最小的候选不动点进行筛选;最后根据所选择的不动点确定庞加莱截面图,计算控制脉冲量,对循环轨道进行稳定控制。仿真结果表明,本文所提出的方法适用于各种类型的地月循环轨道,相比现有方法至少节省了66%的能耗,能够使循环轨道长时间趋于稳定。

The Criteria for Reducing Centrally Restricted Three-Body Problem to Two-Body Problem

Our Solar System contains eight planets and their respective natural satellites excepting the inner two planets Mercury and Venus. A satellite hosted by a given Planet is well protected by the gravitational pertubation of much heavier planets such as Jupiter and Saturn if the natural satellite lies deep inside the respective host Planet Hill sphere. Each planet has a Hill radius aH and planet mean radius RP and the ratio R1=RP/aH. Under very low R1 (less than 0.006) the approximation of CRTBP (centrally restricted three-body problem) to two-body problem is valid and planet has spacious Hill lobe to capture a satellite and retain it. This ensures a high probability of capture of natural satellite by the given planet and Sun’s perturbation on Planet-Satellite binary can be neglected. This is the case with Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Uranus. But Mercury and Venus has R1=RP/aH =0.01 and 5.9862 × 10-3 respectively hence they have no satellites. There is a limit to the dimension of the captured body. It must be a much smaller body both dimensionally as well masswise. The qantitative limit is a subject of an independent study.

Possible Connections between Seasons and Ultra-Deep Earthquakes Worldwide

The aim of this investigation is to find possible changes in ultra-deep earthquakes (UDQ) during different seasons of the year. In the acquisition of data for our previous work we observed an inexplicable pattern of growth of ultra-deep tremors (UDQ) during the studied period. Apparently, there is no viable explanation for growth occurring at such a level, presumably in the asthenosphere. Current research and theories developed for the inner layers of the Earth do not explain such variations. Therefore, a possible explanation would be in external factors such as the seasons of the year, which are determined by changes in the Earth’s axial tilt, and therefore the portion of the earth that is angled toward the sun. This paper focuses exclusively on UDQ events. To simplify the calculations, we consider four main locations;this includes one more region than our previous paper but includes only UDQ data. The results showed that during spring and autumn UDQ events grew slightly in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres. It is also suggested that a contributor to UDQ events is friction from the subducting lithosphere against the continental plates.

Progress of Earth Observation in China

Sustainability is the current theme of global development, and for China, it is not only an opportunity but also a challenge. In 2016, the Paris Agreement on climate change was adopted, addressing the need to limit the rise of global temperatures. The United Nations(UN) has set Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) to transform our world in terms of closely linking human well-being, economic prosperity, and healthy environments. Sustainable development requires the support of spatial information and objective evaluation,and the capability of macroscopic, rapid, accurate Earth observation techniques plays an important role in sustainable development. Recently, Earth observation technologies are developing rapidly in China, where scientists are building coordinated, comprehensive and sustainable Earth observation systems for global monitoring programs. Recent efforts include the Digital Belt and Road Program(DBAR) and comparative studies of the "three poles". This and other researches will provide powerful support for solving problems such as global change and environmental degradation.

A possible anorthositic continent of early Mars and the role of planetary size for the inception of Earth-like life

The Moon has an anorthositic primordial continental crust. Recently anorthosite has also been discovered on the Martian surface. Although the occurrence of anorthosite is observed to be very limited in Earth＇s extant geological record,both lunar and Martian surface geology suggest that anorthosite may have comprised a primordial continent on the early Earth during the first 600 million years after its formation. We hypothesized that differences in the presence of an anorthositic continent on an Earthlike planet are due to planetary size. Earth likely lost its primordial anorthositic continent by tectonic erosion through subduction associated with a kind of proto-plate tectonics（PPT）. In contrast, Mars and the Moon, as much smaller planetary bodies, did not lose much of their anorthositic continental crust because mantle convection had weakened and/or largely stopped, and with time, they had appropriately cooled down. Applying this same reasoning to a super-Earth exoplanet suggests that, while a primordial anorthositic continent may briefly form on its surface, such a continent will be likely transported into the deep mantle due to intense mantle convection immediately following its formation. The presence of a primordial continent on an Earth-like planet seems to be essential to whether the planet will be habitable to Earth-like life. The key role of the primordial continent is to provide the necessary and sufficient nutrients for the emergence and evolution of life. With the appearance of a ＂trinity＂ consisting of（1） an atmosphere,（2） an ocean, and（3） the primordial continental landmass, material circulation can be maintained to enable a ＂Habitable Trinity＂ environment that will permit the emergence of Earth-like life. Thus, with little likelihood of a persistent primordial continent, a super-Earth affords very little chance for Earth-like life to emerge.

From the Beginning of the World to the Beginning of Life on Earth

Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) is, in fact, a Paradigm Shift in Cosmology [1]. In this paper, we provide seven Pillars of WUM: Medium of the World;Inter-Connectivity of Primary Cosmological Parameters;Creation of Matter;Multicomponent Dark Matter;Macroobjects;Volcanic Rotational Fission;Dark Matter Reactors. We describe the evolution of the World from the Beginning up to the birth of the Solar System and discuss the condition of the Early Earth before the beginning of life on it.

Hadean Earth and primordial continents:The cradle of prebiotic life

The Hadean history of Earth is shrouded in mystery and it is considered that the planet was born dry with no water or atmosphere.The Earth-Moon system had many features in common during the birth stage.Solidification of the dry magma ocean at 4.53 Ga generated primordial continents with komatiite.We speculate that the upper crust was composed of fractionated gabbros and the middle felsic crust by anorthosite at ca.21 km depth boundary,underlain by meta-anorthosite（grossular ＋ kyanite 4 quartz）down to 50-60 km in depth.The thickness of the mafic KREEP basalt in the lower crust,separating it from the underlying upper mantle is not well-constrained and might have been up to ca.100-200 km depending on the degree of fractionation and gravitational stability versus surrounding mantle density.The primordial continents must have been composed of the final residue of dry magma ocean and enriched in several critical elements including Ca,Mg,Fe,Mn,P,K,and Cl which were exposed on the surface of the dry Earth.Around 190 million years after the solidification of the magma ocean, ＂ABEL bombardment＂ delivered volatiles including H_2O,CO_2,N_2 as well as silicate components through the addition of icy asteroids.This event continued for 200 Myr with subordinate bombardments until 3.9 Ga,preparing the Earth for the prebiotic chemical evolution and as the cradle of first life.Due to vigorous convection arising from high mantle potential temperatures,the primordial continents disintegrated and were dragged down to the deep mantle,marking the onset of Hadean plate tectonics.