Sources of IR Radiation in the Earth’s Atmosphere in Connection with the PeTa Effect

The PeTa (Perelman-Tatartchenko) effect is the radiation of the energy of a first-order phase transition during the transition from a less condensed phase to a more condensed one. The effect was independently discovered by M. Perelman and the author of this paper. Six papers on the PeTa effect have been published in this journal over the past nine years. They are devoted to the development of PeTa models to explain the following phenomena: IR radiation from cold surfaces, cavitation luminescence/sonoluminescence (CL/SL), laser-induced bubble luminescence (LIBL), and vapor bubble luminescence (VBL) in underwater geysers. This paper describes the sources of PeTa radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere. These sources of infrared radiation have been investigated by numerous research groups, but their interpretation either does not exist at all, or it is erroneous. The following phenomena are specifically considered: PeTa radiation during the formation of clouds and fog;a pulse laser based on the PeTa radiation;condensation explosions as sources of PaTa radiation;measurement of the concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere using PeTa radiation;atmospheric scintillation of infrared radiation in the atmosphere due to the PeTa effect;PeTa radiation as a source of comfort for the igloo;the influence of PeTa radiation on living organisms;PeTa radiation due to characteristics of tropical storms;PeTa radiation as a possible precursor to earthquakes. The problem of global warming, which worries everyone, as it turns out, is also associated with the PeTa effect.

Identification and Interpretation of Earth’s Atmosphere Dynamics’ and Thermodynamics’ Similarities between Rogue Waves and Oceans’ Surface Geostrophic Wind

In their daily practices, meteorologists make extensive use of the geostrophic wind properties to explain many weather phenomena such as the meaning and direction of the horizontal winds that take place around the low atmospheric pressures. The biggest challenge that faces the public who is interested in information disseminated by meteorologists is to know exactly what means the geostrophic wind. Besides the literal definitions scattered in very little scientific work, there is unfortunately no book which gives importance to the algebraic definition of the geostrophic wind. Our work shows that to better understand the behavior of natural phenomena, it is essential to combine the theories with based observations. Obviously, observations cannot be relevant without a theory that guides the observers. Conversely, no theory can be validated without experimental verification. Synoptic observations show that in the “free atmosphere!” the wind vectors are very nearly parallel to isobars, and the flow is perpendicular to the horizontal pressure gradient force, at least at any given instant. This kind of information recommends great caution when making geostrophic approximations. Our work also shows that for tornadoes, there is no need to move away from the surface of the oceans to observe the geostrophic balance. Undoubtedly, identification and interpretation of earth’s atmosphere dynamics’ and thermodynamics’ similarities between rogue waves and oceans’ surface geostrophic wind will be an easy exercise to researchers who will give importance to result provided by this paper.

Application of Clausius-Clappeyron Relation (1832) and Carnot Principle (1824) to Earth’s Atmosphere Tricellular Circulation

Atmospheric or climate phenomena are usually a combination of elementary events whose scales range from the very small (microscopic) to the infinitely large (synoptic). This means that build reasoning from ground- or space-based observations only, regardless of the physics of elementary processes, inevitably leads to erroneous results. Given the fact that plots of Troposphere Tricellular Circulation are only based on weather mean conditions measured near the ground (i.e.: pressure and winds fields observed at the surface of the earth), we want to improve these representations of the general circulation of the atmosphere, by using both Clausius-Clapeyron Relation and Carnot Principle derived respectively in 1832 and 1824. Indeed, Clausius-Clapeyron relation shows precisely that, unlike the dry water vapor that can be assimilated to the ideal gas at many circumstances, the saturated water vapor has, in an air parcel at the same time cold (temperature below 0.0098°C) and rich in moisture (vapor pressure above 6.11 mb), thermoelastic properties diametrically opposed to those of ideal gas (including dry water vapor). Vertical profiles of temperature and water vapor in the atmosphere provided by ground- or space-based observations lead to the location of a troposphere region in which the ideal gas assumption should be banned: hence appropriate and unique plot of earth’s atmosphere tricellular circulation.

On the Walker’ Model for the Carbon Dioxide in the Earth’s Atmosphere

Climate change is a wicked problem because it is hard to say what the problem is, and to define it clearly. However, we know that global temperature rise correlates with increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide [1] and [2]. In this paper, we analyze a model for the carbon dioxide developed by Walker in [3] with several source terms. Our numerical results show that the burning fossil fuels have an effect on the carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere and the climate change problem, one of the major global challenger of our time.

Increased Temperature and Entropy Production in the Earth’s Atmosphere: Effect on Wind, Precipitation, Chemical Reactions, Freezing and Melting of Ice and Electrical Activity

Since the late nineteenth century, until the present time, there has been an increase in the earth’s global mean surface temperature (GMST). This temperature increase has been calculated at 0.85°C over the period 1880-2012. The causes of this temperature increase include increased levels of greenhouse gases (GHG’s), variations in solar irradiance and changes in absorption and re-radiation of heat. Volcanic activity and orbital cycles work to cool the earth’s surface. A thermodynamic analysis is presented of the earth’s atmosphere. The analysis demonstrates an increase in entropy production as a result of increased GMST. An equation is derived expressing entropy production in the atmosphere based on atmospheric processes (wind, precipitation, chemical reactions, electrical activity and heat transfer). The effects of increased entropy production on wind, precipitation, freezing and melting of ice, chemical reactions and electrical activity are given showing an increase in the combination of the above phenomena.

Earth’s Atmosphere Prevailing Surface Winds Based on Effectiveness of Mbane Biouele Formula Derived in 2009

Any system designed to simulate the earth's atmosphere general circulation, must necessarily be based on the spatial-or temporal average conditions. Irregularities in the profiles of air motions that we observe on daily weather maps often make lose any real meaning to the general circulation. As complicated and inconsistent that is the daily traffic of air particles, it is interesting to define a general circulation characteristic of the average air transportation around the globe. Indeed, this transport responds to a need to transfer heat from the equator (heat source) to the poles (cold sources). Mbane Biouele formula (2009), derived from Clausius-Clapeyron relation (1832), now allows faithful and unique representation of the tricellular general circulation: Hence, the possibility of access to the earth’s atmosphere prevailing surface winds in summer as well as winter.

Probing signals of atmospheric gravity waves excited by the July 29,2021 M_(W)8.2 Alaska earthquake

It is commonly believed that the atmosphere is decoupled from the solid Earth.Thus,it is difficult for the seismic wave energy inside the Earth to propagate into the atmosphere,and atmospheric pressure wave signals excited by earthquakes are unlikely to exist in atmospheric observations.An increasing number of studies have shown that earthquakes,volcanoes,and tsunamis can perturb the Earth's atmosphere due to various coupling effects.However,the observations mainly focus on acoustic waves with periods of less than 10 min and inertial gravity waves with periods of greater than 1 h.There are almost no clear observations of gravity waves that coincide with observations of low-frequency signals of the Earth's free oscillation frequency band within 1 h.This paper investigates atmospheric gravity wave signals within1 h of surface-atmosphere observations using the periodogram method based on seismometer and microbarometer observations from the global seismic network before and after the July 29,2021 M_(w)8.2 Alaska earthquake in the United States.The numerical results show that the atmospheric gravity wave signals with frequencies similar to those of the Earth's free oscillations _(0)S_(2) and _(0)T_(2) can be detected in the microbaro meter observations.The results con firm the existence of atmospheric gravity waves,indicating that the atmosphere and the solid Earth are not decoupled within this frequency band and that seismic wave energy excited by earthquakes can propagate from the interior of the Earth to the atmosphere and enhance the atmospheric gravity wave signals within 1 h.

Spatio-temporal Variation Characteristics of Extreme Climate Events and Their Teleconnections to Large-scale Ocean-atmospheric Circulation Patterns in Huaihe River Basin,China During 1959–2019

Huaihe River Basin(HRB) is located in China’s north-south climatic transition zone,which is very sensitive to global climate change.Based on the daily maximum temperature,minimum temperature,and precipitation data of 40 meteorological stations and nine monthly large-scale ocean-atmospheric circulation indices data during 1959–2019,we present an assessment of the spatial and temporal variations of extreme temperature and precipitation events in the HRB using nine extreme climate indices,and analyze the teleconnection relationship between extreme climate indices and large-scale ocean-atmospheric circulation indices.The results show that warm extreme indices show a significant(P < 0.05) increasing trend,while cold extreme indices(except for cold spell duration) and diurnal temperature range(DTR) show a significant decreasing trend.Furthermore,all extreme temperature indices show significant mutations during 1959-2019.Spatially,a stronger warming trend occurs in eastern HRB than western HRB,while maximum 5-d precipitation(Rx5day) and rainstorm days(R25) show an increasing trend in the southern,central,and northwestern regions of HRB.Arctic oscillation(AO),Atlantic multidecadal oscillation(AMO),and East Atlantic/Western Russia(EA/WR) have a stronger correlation with extreme climate indices compared to other circulation indices.AO and AMO(EA/WR) exhibit a significant(P < 0.05) negative(positive)correlation with frost days and diurnal temperature range.Extreme warm events are strongly correlated with the variability of AMO and EA/WR in most parts of HRB,while extreme cold events are closely related to the variability of AO and AMO in eastern HRB.In contrast,AMO,AO,and EA/WR show limited impacts on extreme precipitation events in most parts of HRB.

Monitoring and identification of spoilage-related microorganisms in braised chicken with modified atmosphere packaging during refrigerated storage

This study mainly monitored the dominant bacterial populations and identified the spoilage-related microorganisms of braised chicken meat stored under different CO_(2)-modified atmosphere packaging(MAP)during refrigerated storage using a culture-dependent method and 16S rDNA identification.The quality changes and shelf life of the meat were also measured.The growth rate of total viable count(TVC)in braised chicken was slower with an increase of CO_(2) content in MAP,which also occurred in the remaining bacterial species monitored(lactic acid bacteria,Pseudomonas spp.,Brochothrix thermosphacta).The MAP exerted beneficial effects on the quality of braised chicken,as demonstrated by retarding the production of total volatile basic nitrogen(TVB-N)and delaying lipid oxidation(TBARS test).A total of 14 isolates were identified from braised chickens with different packaging at the end of storage,these included P.fragi(6 isolates),P.psychrophila(2 isolates),Enterococcus faecalis(3 isolates),B.thermosphacta(2 isolates),Staphylococcus equorum(1 isolate).

Interrelationships between Length of the Day, Moon Distance, Phanerozoic Geodynamic Cycles, Tidal Dissipation and Earth’s Core: Review and Analysis

The rotation of the Earth and the related length of the day (LOD) are predominantly affected by tidal dissipation through the Moon and the growth of the Earth’s core. Due to the increased concentration of mass around the rotation axis of the spinning Earth during the growth of the core the rotation should have been accelerated. Controversially the tidal dissipation by the Moon, which is mainly dependent on the availability of open shallow seas and the kind of Moon escape from a nearby position, acts towards a deceleration of the rotating Earth. Measurements of LOD for Phanerozoic and Precambrian times open ways to solve questions concerning the geodynamical history of the Earth. These measurements encompass investigations of growth patterns in fossils and depositional patterns in sediments (Cyclostratigraphy, Tidalites, Stromatolites, Rhythmites). These patterns contain information on the LOD and on the changing distance between Earth and Moon and can be used as well for a discussion about the growth of the Earth’s core. By updating an older paper with its simple approach as well as incorporating newly published results provided by the geoscientific community, a moderate to fast growth of the core in a hot early Earth will be favored controversially to the assumption of a delayed development of the core in an originally cold Earth. Core development with acceleration of Earth’s rotation and the contemporaneous slowing down due to tidal dissipation during the filling of the ocean may significantly interrelate.

Spatial Inhomogeneity of Atmospheric CO_(2) Concentration and Its Uncertainty in CMIP6 Earth System Models

This paper provides a systematic evaluation of the ability of 12 Earth System Models(ESMs)participating in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6(CMIP6)to simulate the spatial inhomogeneity of the atmospheric carbon dioxide(CO_(2))concentration.The multi-model ensemble mean(MME)can reasonably simulate the increasing trend of CO_(2) concentration from 1850 to 2014,compared with the observation data from the Scripps CO_(2) Program and CMIP6 prescribed data,and improves upon the CMIP5 MME CO_(2) concentration(which is overestimated after 1950).The growth rate of CO_(2) concentration in the northern hemisphere(NH)is higher than that in the southern hemisphere(SH),with the highest growth rate in the mid-latitudes of the NH.The MME can also reasonably simulate the seasonal amplitude of CO_(2) concentration,which is larger in the NH than in the SH and grows in amplitude after the 1950s(especially in the NH).Although the results of the MME are reasonable,there is a large spread among ESMs,and the difference between the ESMs increases with time.The MME results show that regions with relatively large CO_(2) concentrations(such as northern Russia,eastern China,Southeast Asia,the eastern United States,northern South America,and southern Africa)have greater seasonal variability and also exhibit a larger inter-model spread.Compared with CMIP5,the CMIP6 MME simulates an average spatial distribution of CO_(2) concentration that is much closer to the site observations,but the CMIP6-inter-model spread is larger.The inter-model differences of the annual means and seasonal cycles of atmospheric CO_(2) concentration are both attributed to the differences in natural sources and sinks of CO_(2) between the simulations.

The Possibilities of Using the Minimax Method to Diagnose the State of the Atmosphere

The article is devoted to the discussion of the possibilities of approbation of one of the probabilistic methods of verification of evaluation works-the minimax method or the method of establishing the minimum risk of making erroneous diagnoses of the instability of the planetary boundary layer of air.Within the framework of this study,the task of probabilistic forecasting of diagnostic parameters and their combinations,leading in their totality to the formation of an unstable state of the planetary boundary layer of the atmosphere,was carried out.It is this state that,as shown by previous studies,a priori contribution to the development of a number of weather phenomena dangerous for society(squalls,hail,heavy rains,etc.).The results of applying the minimax method made it possible to identify a number of parameters,such as the intensity of circulation,the activity of the Earth’s magnetosphere,and the components of the geostrophic wind velocity,the combination of which led to the development of instability.In the future,it is possible to further expand the number of diagnosed parameters to identify more sensitive elements.In this sense,the minimax method,the usefulness of which is shown in this study,can be considered as one of the preparatory steps for the subsequent more detailed method for forecasting individual hazardous weather phenomena.

Estimate Totel Number of the Earth Atmospheric Particle with Standard Atmosphere model

The total number of atmospheric particle(AP)is an important datum for planetary science and geoscience.Estimating entire AP number is also a familiar question in general physics,with standard atmosphere model,considering the number difference of AP caused by rough and uneven in the earth surface below,the sum of dry clean atmosphere particle is 1.06962×10^44.So the whole number of AP including water vapor is 1.0740×10^44.The rough estimation for the total number of AP on other planets(or satellites)in condensed state is also discussed on the base of it.

Use of Fossil Energy Will Increase Atmosphere and Earth Land Temperature

Energy used for industrial production, buildings and transport will be accumulated in Atmosphere and Earth land. Global use of energy is known and documented for a long period of time and proportion of fossil and renewable energy is also known. Calculated accumulated energy in Earth land from 1971 to 2018 corresponds to 40% of IPCC Global Energy Inventory and calculated Atmosphere temperature increase from 1971 to 2018 corresponds to 100% of actual measurements.

甘肃积石山 M_(s)6.2级地震的震害特征与启示

2023年12月18日,甘肃省临夏回族自治州积石山保安族东乡族撒拉族自治县(35.70°N,102.79°E)发生了6.2级地震,震中烈度为VIII度。地震发生后,通过实地烈度评估与科学考察,对震区VI~VIII度区不同建(构)筑物与生命线工程的震害特点进行了统计分析;从抗震设计与施工管理、场地放大效应与地震次生灾害对建筑结构抗震性能的影响等角度,提出了此次地震的震害启示。结果表明:1)严重破坏和毁坏的建筑结构主要集中在老旧的土木结构、砖木结构和无设防或设防不规范的砖混结构。2)造成建筑结构破坏的主要原因是少量自建房抗震设计和施工的不规范、场地放大效应和地震次生灾害。3)优化和改良生土砌筑材料,改进纵横墙间的拉结措施,强化结构整体性是提高土木结构抗震的有效方法;普及“上下圈梁与构造柱”等基本抗震设防措施,规范水泥砂浆强度,提升农村工匠的施工水平,可有效提高砌体结构的整体性,避免房屋出现整体性垮塌;室内洗手间的墙体应该与房顶、纵横墙间建立有效联接,提高结构的抗震性能。4)孤突斜坡、河流高阶地与岸边为抗震不利地带。当建造用地极为匮乏,不得不选址在这些场地之上时,应该综合考虑场地的地形地貌特征、岩土体物理力学特性、水文地质条件、抗震设防目标、建筑结构类型等影响因素,做好地震灾害风险评估,根据评估结果进行科学设防。灾后重建过程中,应由政府统一规划选址、统一设计,规范施工。

中强地震发震构造标志浅析——以2023年积石山M_(S)6.2地震为例

地震地表破裂是地震发生的重要特征,是研究地震动力学、构造变形的重要手段。一般认为,M6 3/4以上的地震才会形成地表破裂。但近年来,也有M6.0左右的地震发生了地表破裂。本文旨在探讨中强地震地表破裂的识别方法。中强地震发震构造的识别具有一定的挑战性,主要表现在以下几个方面:(1)中强地震地表破裂的规模(位错量、宽度、长度和深度)较小,容易被黄土层厚覆盖,掩盖地表破裂的痕迹,不易识别;(2)非构造成因裂缝干扰,使得难以区分构造成因地表破裂。本文以2023年积石山M_(S)6.2地震为例,对中强地震构造成因破裂的识别标志进行了初步分析,提出了以下识别标志:(1)地表破裂几何展布和剖面形态,地震伴生的次生灾害(滑坡、崩塌、砂土液化等)的线性分布为识别发震构造提供参考和线索;(2)地表破裂沿破裂走向呈现稳定地穿越不同地貌单元,至少穿越一条沟谷等低凹地貌;(3)地表破裂在地质剖面上表现出稳定的产状;(4)地表破裂伴生构造形态,地表沿破裂发育雁列式褶皱(挤压鼓包)与张裂缝交替出现的现象。本文提出的识别标志为中强地震发震构造的识别提供了新的思路。

Chemical stability of doped BaCeO_3-BaZrO_3 solid solutions in different atmospheres

BaCe0.45Zr0.45M0.1O3-δ （M=Y, In） and BaCe0.9Y0.1O3-δ were prepared through the conventional solid state reaction route. The chemical stability was investigated in hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and boiling water. Crystalline phase and microsa-ucture of the proton conductor before and after stability test were measured with X-ray diffraction （XRD） and scanning electron microscopy （SEM）, respectively. The results showed that all materials were quite stable in H2 atmosphere. In CO2 atmosphere, BaCe0.45Zr0.45M0.1O3-δ（M=Y, In） were relatively stable, while Bafe0.9Y0.1O3-δ decomposed. In boiling water, BaCe0.9Y0.1O3-δ was quickly decomposed into Ba（OH）2 and corresponding oxide. BaCe0.45Zr0.45M0.1O3-δ slightly reacted with boiling water and some amorphous phases were formed. However, BaCe0.45Zr0.45In0.1O3-δ was observed to exhibit better stability than BaCe0.45Zr0.45Y0.1O3-δ in water. The experimental results were interpreted in terms of thermodynamic data and tolerance factor.

Earth rotation deceleration/acceleration due to semidiurnal oceanic/atmospheric tides:Revisited with new calculation

The global oceanic/atmospheric tides exert decelerating/accelerating secular torques on the Earth rotation. We developed new formulations to accurately calculate amounts of two kinds of secular tidal torques. After Melchior, we found that an additional factor 1+k-l = 1.216, which has been formerly neglected, must be multiplied unto the tidal torque integral. By using our refined formulations and the recent oceanic/atmospheric global tide models, we found that:(i) semidiurnal oceanic lunar/solar tides exert decelerating torques of about-4.462 × 10^(16)/-0.676 × 10^(16) Nm respectively and(ii) atmospheric S_2 tide exerts accelerating torque of 1.55 × 10^(15) Nm. Former estimates of the atmospheric S_2 tidal torque were twice as large as our estimate due to improper consideration of loading effect. We took the load Love number for atmospheric loading effect from Guo et al.(2004). For atmospheric loading of spherical harmonic degree two, the value of k′=-0.6031 is different from that for ocean loading as k′ =-0.3052,while the latter is currently used for both cases-ocean/atmospheric loading-without distinction. We discuss(i) the amount of solid Earth tidal dissipation(which has been left most uncertain) and(ii) secular changes of the dynamical state of the Earth-Moon-Sun system. Our estimate of the solid Earth tidal torque is-4.94×10^(15) Nm.

Atmospheric acceleration and Earth-expansion deceleration of the Earth rotation

Previous studies suggest that tidal friction gives rise to the secular deceleration of the Earth rotation by a quantity of about 2.25 ms/cy. Here we just consider additional contributions to the secular Earth rotation deceleration. Atmospheric solar semi-diurnal tide has a small amplitude and certain amount of phase lead. This periodic global air-mass excess distribution exerts a quasi-constant torque to accelerate the Earth＇s spin rotation. Using an updated atmospheric tide model, we re-estimate the amounts of this atmospheric acceleration torque and corresponding energy input, of which the associated change rate in LOD（length of day） is-0.1 ms/cy. In another aspect, evidences from space-geodesy and sea level rise observations suggest that Earth expands at a rate of 0.35 mm/yr in recent decades, which gives rise to the increase of LOD at rate of 1.0 ms/cy. Hence, if the previous estimate due to the tidal friction is correct, the secular Earth rotation deceleration due to tidal friction and Earth expansion should be 3.15 ms/cy.