Wire electric discharge machining characteristics of titanium nickel shape memory alloy

Ti Ni shape memory alloys（SMAs） have been normally used as the competent elements in large part of the industries due to outstanding properties, such as super elasticity and shape memory effects. However, traditional machining of SMAs is quite complex due to these properties. Hence, the wire electric discharge machining（WEDM） characteristics of Ti Ni SMA was studied. The experiments were planned as per L27 orthogonal array to minimize the experiments, each experiment was performed under different conditions of pulse duration, pulse off time, servo voltage, flushing pressure and wire speed. A multi-response optimization method using Taguchi design with utility concept has been proposed for simultaneous optimization. The analysis of means（ANOM） and analysis of variance（ANOVA） on signal to noise（S/N） ratio were performed for determining the optimal parameter levels. Taguchi analysis reveals that a combination of 1 μs pulse duration, 3.8 μs pulse off time, 40 V servo voltage, 1.8×105 Pa flushing pressure and 8 m/min wire speed is beneficial for simultaneously maximizing the material removal rate（MRR） and minimizing the surface roughness. The optimization results of WEDM of Ti Ni SMA also indicate that pulse duration significantly affects the material removal rate and surface roughness. The discharged craters, micro cracks and recast layer were observed on the machined surface at large pulse duration.

Optimization of micro milling electrical discharge machining of Inconel 718 by Grey-Taguchi method

The optimization of micro milling electrical discharge machining（EDM） process parameters of Inconel 718 alloy to achieve multiple performance characteristics such as low electrode wear,high material removal rate and low working gap was investigated by the Grey-Taguchi method.The influences of peak current,pulse on-time,pulse off-time and spark gap on electrode wear（EW）,material removal rate（MRR） and working gap（WG） in the micro milling electrical discharge machining of Inconel 718 were analyzed.The experimental results show that the electrode wear decreases from 5.6×10-9 to 5.2×10-9 mm3/min,the material removal rate increases from 0.47×10-8 to 1.68×10-8 mm3/min,and the working gap decreases from 1.27 to 1.19 μm under optimal micro milling electrical discharge machining process parameters.Hence,it is clearly shown that multiple performance characteristics can be improved by using the Grey-Taguchi method.

Finite element modeling and analysis of powder mixed electric discharge machining process for temperature distribution and volume removal considering multiple craters

Powder mixed electric discharge machining(PMEDM)is one of the modern developments in electric discharge machining(EDM)process.In the present work,finite element modeling has been carried out considering randomly oriented multiple sparks during PMEDM.Transient thermal analysis is done to obtain temperature distribution,volume removal,and proportion of volume removed by melting and evaporation at different current,pulse on time and fraction of heat that enters to work piece.Gradually growing spark behavior and Gaussian distribution of heat source is used to simulate multiple craters.Temperature distribution along radial direction shows peak temperature at center of spark and thereafter a gradual decrease with increase in radial distance.Along depth direction temperature sharply decreases that forms wider craters with shallow depth in PMEDM.Peak temperature and volume removal increases with current more rapidly.Volume removal by melting is much higher than evaporation at lower current settings and with higher current almost equal amount of material is removed by melting and evaporation thus reducing the re-solidification of melted material.Current plays a significant role behind the contribution of material removal by evaporation followed by fraction of heat.Increase in pulse on duration increases the total volume of material removal however does not significantly increase the proportion of volume removal by vaporization.

Statistical Description of Debris Particle Size Distribution in Electrical Discharge Machining

Gap debris as discharge product is closely related to machining process in electrical discharge machining（EDM）. A lot of recent researches have focused on the relationship among debris size, surfaces texture, remove rate, and machining stability. The study on statistical distribution of debris size contributes to the research, but it is still superficial currently. In order to obtain the distribution law of the debris particle size, laser particle size analyzer（LPSA） combined with scanning electron microscope（SEM） is used to analyze the EDM debris size. Firstly, the heating dried method is applied to obtain the debris particles. Secondly, the measuring range of LPSA is determined as 0.5–100 μm by SEM observation, and the frequency distribution histogram and the cumulative frequency distribution scattergram of debris size are obtained by using LPSA. Thirdly, according to the distribution characteristic of the frequency distribution histogram, the statistical distribution functions of lognormal, exponentially modified Gaussian（EMG）, Gamma and Weibull are chosen to achieve curve fitting of the histogram. At last, the distribute law of the debris size is obtained by fitting results. Experiments with different discharge parameters are carried out on an EDM machine designed by the authors themselves, and the machining conditions are tool electrode of red-copper material, workpiece of ANSI 1045 material and working fluid of de-ionized water. The experimental results indicate that the debris sizes of all experiment sample truly obey the Weibull distribution. The obtained distribution law is significantly important for all the models established based on the debris particle size.

Parameter optimization model in electrical discharge machining process

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) process, at present is still an experience process, wherein selected parameters are often far from the optimum, and at the same time selecting optimization parameters is costly and time consuming. In this paper, artificial neural network (ANN) and genetic algorithm (GA) are used together to establish the parameter optimization model. An ANN model which adapts Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm has been set up to represent the relationship between material removal rate (MRR) and input parameters, and GA is used to optimize parameters, so that optimization results are obtained. The model is shown to be effective, and MRR is improved using optimized machining parameters.

Micro Electrical Discharge Machining Deposition in Air for Fabrication of Micro Spiral Structures

Micro electrical discharge machining（EDM） deposition process is a new micro machining method for fabrication of metal micro structures. In this process, the high level of tool electrode wear is used to achieve the metal material deposition. Up to now, the studies of micro EDM deposition process focused mainly on the researches of deposition process, namely the effects of discharge parameters in deposition process on the deposition rate or deposition quality. The research of the formation of micro structures with different discharge energy density still lacks. With proper conditions and only by the z-axis feeding in vertical direction, a novel shape of micro spiral structure can be deposited, with 0.11 mm in wire diameter, 0.20 mm in outside diameter, and 3.78 mm in height. Then some new deposition strategies including angular deposition and against the gravity deposition were also successful. In order to find the forming mechanism of the spiral structures, the numerical simulation of the transient temperature distribution on the discharge point was conducted by using the finite-element method（FEM）. The results show that there are two major factors lead to the forming of the spiral structures. One is the different material removal form of tool electrode according with the discharge energy density, the other is the influenced degree of the movement of the removed material particles in the discharge gap. The more the energy density in single discharge is, the smaller the mass of the removed material particles is, and the easier the movements of which will be changed to form an order tendency. The fine texture characteristics of the deposited micro spiral structures were analyzed by the energy spectrum analysis and the metallographic analysis. It shows that the components of the deposited material are almost the same as those of the tool electrode. Moreover the deposited material has the brass metallic luster in the longitudinal profile and has compact bonding with the base material. This research is useful to understand the micro-process of micro EDM deposition better and helpful to increase the controllability of the new EDM method for fabrication of micro structures.

Surface Modification Process by Electrical Discharge Machining with Ti Powder Green Compact Electrode

This paper describes a new method of surface modification by Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM). By using ordinary EDM machine tool and kerosene fluid, a hard ceramic layer can be created on the workpiece surface with Ti or other compressed powder electrode in a certain condition. This new revolutionary method is called Electrical Discharge Coating (EDC). The process of EDC begins with electrode wear during EDM,then a kind of hard carbide is created through the thermal and chemical reaction between the worn electrode material and the carbon particle decomposed from kerosene fluid under high temperature. The carbide is piled up on a workpiece quickly and becomes a hard layer of ceramic about 20 μm in several minutes. This paper studies the principle and process of EDC systemically by using Ti powder green compact electrode. In order to obtain a layer of compact ceramic film, it is very important to select proper electric pulse parameters, such as pulse width, pulse interval, peak current. Meantime, the electrode materials and its forming mode will effect the machining surface quality greatly. This paper presents a series of experiment results to study the EDC process by adopt different technology parameters. Experiments and analyses show that a compact TiC ceramic layer can be created on the surface of metal workpiece. The hardness of ceramic layer is more 3 times higher than the base body, and the hardness changes gradiently from surface to base body. The method will have a great future because many materials can be easily added to the electrode and then be coated on the workpiece surface. Gearing the parameters ceramic can be created with different thickness. The switch between deposition and removal process is carried out easily by changing the polarity, thus the gear to the thickness and shape of the composite ceramic layer is carried out easily. This kind of composite ceramic layer will be used to deal with the surface of the cutting tools or molds possibly, in order to lengthen their life. It also can be found wide application in the fields of surface repairing and strengthening of the ship or aircraft.

Experimental Research on Effects of Process Parameters on Servo Scanning 3D Micro Electrical Discharge Machining

Servo scanning 3D micro electrical discharge machining (3D SSMEDM) is a novel and effective method in fabricating complex 3D micro structures with high aspect ratio on conducting materials. In 3D SSMEDM process, the axial wear of tool electrode can be compensated automatically by servo-keeping discharge gap, instead of the traditional methods that depend on experiential models or intermittent compensation. However, the effects of process parameters on 3D SSMEDM have not been reported up until now. In this study, the emphasis is laid on the effects of pulse duration, peak current, machining polarity, track style, track overlap, and scanning velocity on the 3D SSMEDM performances of machining efficiency, processing status, and surface accuracy. A series of experiments were carried out by machining a micro-rectangle cavity (900 μm×600 μm) on doped silicon. The experimental results were obtained as follows. Peak current plays a main role in machining efficiency and surface accuracy. Pulse duration affects obviously the stability of discharge state. The material removal rate of cathode processing is about 3/5 of that of anode processing. Compared with direction-parallel path, contour-parallel path is better in counteracting the lateral wear of tool electrode end. Scanning velocity should be selected moderately to avoid electric arc and short. Track overlap should be slightly less than the radius of tool electrode. In addition, a typical 3D micro structure of eye shape was machined based on the optimized process parameters. These results are beneficial to improve machining stability, accuracy, and efficiency in 3D SSMEDM.

Micro electrical discharge machining of small hole in TC4 alloy

Aiming at machining deeply small holes in TC4 alloy,a series of experiments were carried out on a self-developed multi-axis micro electrical discharge machining(micro-EDM)machine tool.To improve machining efficiency and decrease relative wear of electrode in machining deeply small hole in TC4 alloy,many factors in micro-EDM,such as polarity,electrical parameters and supplying ways of working fluid were studied.Experimental results show that positive polarity machining is far superior to negative polarity machining;it is more optimal when open-circuit voltage,pulse width and pulse interval are 130 V,5μs and 15μs respectively on the self developed multi-axis micro-EDM machine tool;when flushing method is applied in micro-EDM,the machining efficiency is higher and relative wear of electrode is smaller.

Electrical discharge machining of 6061 aluminium alloy

The wire electrical discharge machining（EDM） of 6061 aluminium alloy in terms of material removal rate,kerf/slit width,surface finish and wear of electrode wire for different pulse on time and wire tension was studied.Eight experiments were carried out in a wire EDM machine by varying pulse on time and wire tension.It is found that the material removal rate increases with the increase of pulse on time though the wire tension does not affect the material removal rate.It seems that the higher wire tension facilitates steady machining process,which generates low wear in wire electrode and better surface finish.The surface roughness does not change notably with the variation of pulse on time.The appearance of the machined surfaces is very similar under all the machining conditions.The machined surface contains solidified molten material,splash of materials and blisters.The increase of the pulse on time increases the wear of wire electrode due to the increase of heat input.The wear of wire electrode generates tapered slot which has higher kerf width at top side than that at bottom side.The higher electrode wear introduces higher taper.

MICRO ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING DEPOSITION IN AIR

A new deposition method is described using micro electrical discharge machining （EDM） to deposit tool electrode material on workpiece in air. The basic principles of micro electrical discharge deposition （EDD） are analyzed and the realized conditions are predicted. With an ordinary EDM shaping machine, brass as the electrode, high-speed steel as the workpiece, a lot of experiments are carried out on micro EDD systematically and thoroughly. The effects of major processing parameters, such as the discharge current, discharge duration, pulse interval and working medium, are obtained, As a result, a micro cylinder with 0.19 mm in diameter and 7.35 mm in height is deposited. By exchanging the polarities of the electrode and workpiece the micro cylinder can be removed selectively. So the reversible machining of deposition and removal is achieved, which breaks through the constraint of traditional EDM. Measurements show that the deposited material is compact and close to workpiece base, whose components depend on the tool electrode, material.

Optimization of electrical discharge machining process parameters for Al6061/cenosphere composite using grey-based hybrid approach

Fly ash has congregated considerable attention as a potential reinforcement for aluminum matrix composites(AMCs)to enhance selective properties and reduce the cost of fabrication.However,poor machinability of such AMCs limits their application.The present study focuses on the preparation of cenosphere fly ash reinforced Al6061alloys by compo casting method.X-ray diffraction analysis of the prepared AMCs exposes the presence of cenosphere particles without any formation of other intermetallic compounds.In this study,electrical discharge machining(EDM)was engaged to examine the machinability of the prepared metal matrix composite(MMCs).The measured performance characteristics for the various combinations of input process parameters were considered to be MRR,EWR and SR.Face centered central composite design(CCD)of response surface method(RSM)was employed to design the number of experimental trials required and a hybrid approach of grey-based response surface methodology(GRSM)was imposed for predicting the optimal combination of processing parameter in EDM process.Generous improvement was observed in the performance characteristics obtained by employing both the optimal setting of machining parameters.The optical3D surface profile graphs of the ED machined surface also revealed the improvement in surface quality and texture employing the optimal processing conditions proposed by hybrid GRSM approach.

Scale Effects and a Method for Similarity Evaluation in Micro Electrical Discharge Machining

Electrical discharge machining（EDM） is a promising non-traditional micro machining technology that offers a vast array of applications in the manufacturing industry. However, scale effects occur when machining at the micro-scale, which can make it difficult to predict and optimize the machining performances of micro EDM. A new concept of ＂scale effects＂ in micro EDM is proposed, the scale effects can reveal the difference in machining performances between micro EDM and conventional macro EDM. Similarity theory is presented to evaluate the scale effects in micro EDM. Single factor experiments are conducted and the experimental results are analyzed by discussing the similarity difference and similarity precision. The results show that the output results of scale effects in micro EDM do not change linearly with discharge parameters. The values of similarity precision of machining time significantly increase when scaling-down the capacitance or open-circuit voltage. It is indicated that the lower the scale of the discharge parameter, the greater the deviation of non-geometrical similarity degree over geometrical similarity degree, which means that the micro EDM system with lower discharge energy experiences more scale effects. The largest similarity difference is 5.34 while the largest similarity precision can be as high as 114.03. It is suggested that the similarity precision is more effective in reflecting the scale effects and their fluctuation than similarity difference. Consequently, similarity theory is suitable for evaluating the scale effects in micro EDM. This proposed research offers engineering values for optimizing the machining parameters and improving the machining performances of micro EDM.

Surface performance of workpieces processed by electrical discharge machining in gas

The surface performance of workpieces processed by electrical discharge machining in gas(dry EDM)was studied in this paper.Firstly,the composition,micro hardness and recast layer of electrical discharge machined(EDMed)surface of 45 carbon steels in air were investigated through different test analysis methods.The results show that the workpiece surface EDMed in air contains a certain quantity of oxide,and oxidation occurs on the workpiece surface.Compared with the surface of workpieces processed in kerosene,fewer cracks exist on the dry EDMed workpiece surface,and the surface recast layer is thinner than that obtained by conventional EDM.The micro hardness of workpieces machined by dry EDM method is lower than that machined in kerosene,and higher than that of the matrix.In addition,experiments were conducted on the surface wear resistance of workpieces processed in air and kerosene using copper electrode and titanium alloy electrode.The results indicate that the surface wear resistance of workpieces processed in air can be improved,and it is related with tool material and dielectric.

Modelling effect of magnetic field on material removal in dry electrical discharge machining

One of the reasons for increased material removal rate in magnetic field assisted dry electrical discharge machining （EDM） is confinement of plasma due to Lorentz forces. This paper presents a mathematical model to evaluate the effect of external magnetic field on crater depth and diameter in single- and multiple-discharge EDM process. The model incorporates three main effects of the magnetic field, which include plasma confinement, mean free path reduction and pulsating magnetic field effects. Upon the application of an external magnetic field, Lorentz forces that are developed across the plasma column confine the plasma column. Also, the magnetic field reduces the mean free path of electrons due to an increase in the plasma pressure and cycloidal path taken by the electrons between the electrodes. As the mean free path of electrons reduces, more ionization occurs in plasma column and eventually an increase in the current density at the inter-electrode gap occurs. The model results for crater depth and its diameter in single discharge dry EDM process show an error of 9%-10% over the respective experimental values.

A Study on Modelling Surface Finish in Electrical Discharge Machining Tablet Shape Punches Using Response Surface Methodology

This paper introduces a study on modelling surface finish in EDM （Electrical Discharge Machining） of tablet shape punches when using copper as electrode material. In this study, 27 experiments were performed based on BBD （Box-Behnken Design） and the work-piece material was 9CrSi steel. The input process parameters were the current, the pulse on time, the pulse off time and the voltage. The effects of the input parameters on the surface finish were evaluated by analysing variance. Besides, from the results of the experiments, a regression equation for determining the surface roughness is introduced. Also, the optimum input parameter values were found in order to get the minimum surface roughness.

Material Removal Rate Prediction of Electrical Discharge Machining Process Using Artificial Neural Network

This article presents an Artificial Neural Network （ANN） architecture to model the Electrical Discharge Machining （EDM） process. It is aimed to develop the ANN model using an input-output pattern of raw data collected from an experimental of EDM process, whereas several research objectives have been outlined such as experimenting machining material for selected gap current, identifying machining parameters for ANN variables and selecting appropriate size of data selection. The experimental data （input variables） of copper-electrode and steel-workpiece is based on a selected gap current where pulse on time, pulse off time and sparking frequency have been chosen at optimum value of Material Removal Rate （MRR）. In this paper, the result has significantly demonstrated that the ANN model is capable of predicting the MRR with low percentage prediction error when compared with the experimental result.

Electrical discharge and arc milling with automatic tracking of optimal flushing direction:A novel high-efficiency compound machining method

The arc milling method has the advantages of high machining efficiency and low cost and is independent of the strength and hardness of machined materials.However,frequent electrode back-offs and the risk of workpiece burning may occur if erosion products are not removed promptly.In this study,it was found that the flushing method of the working medium had a significant impact on the machining performance of arc milling.Based on this,a novel highefficiency compound machining method of electrical discharge and arc milling with automatic tracking of the optimal flushing direction was proposed.An automatic tracking optimizer for external working medium injection was designed to determine the optimal external flushing direction according to the feed direction.The influence of flushing methods,working mediums,and machining parameters on the machining efficiency,tool electrode wear rate,machining error,and surface integrity of titanium alloys were investigated.The results indicated that better machining performance and environmental friendliness were achieved using the compound flushing method of outer compressed air and inner deionized water.Additionally,the automatic tracking flushing method in the opposite direction of the feed direction showed superior results compared to other directions.The material removal rate with the opposite direction injection could be increased up to 1.62 times that of the same direction,and the relative electrode wear rate could be reduced by 14.76%.This novel method has broad application prospects for machining parts with difficult-to-cut materials in aerospace and military industries.

CUTTING REGULARITY AND DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS BY USING COMPOSITE COOLING LIQUID IN WIRE CUT ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINE WITH HIGH WIRE TRAVELING SPEED

The analysis of cutting regularity is provided through using and comparing two typical cooling liquids. It is proved that cutting regularity is greatly affected by cooling liquid＇s washing ability. Discharge characteristics and theoretic analysis between two electrodes are also discussed based on discharge waveform. By using composite cooling liquid which has strong washing ability, the efficiency in the first stable cutting phase has reached more than 200 mm^2/min, and the roughness of the surface has reached Ra〈0.8 μm after the fourth cutting with more than 50 mm^2/min average cutting efficiency. It is pointed out that cutting situation of the wire cut electrical discharge machine with high wire traveling speed （HSWEDM） is better than the wire cut electrical discharge machine with low wire traveling speed （LSWEDM） in the condition of improving the cooling liquid washing ability. The machining indices of HSWEDM will be increased remarkably by using the composite cooling liquid.

Review on non-conventional machining of shape memory alloys

Shape memory alloys （SMAs） are the developing advanced materials due to their versatile specific properties such as pseudoelasticity, shape memory effect （SME）, biocompatibility, high specific strength, high corrosion resistance, high wear resistance and high anti-fatigue property. Therefore, the SMAs are used in many applications such as aerospace, medical and automobile. However, the conventional machining of SMAs causes serious tool wear, time consuming and less dimensional deformity due to severe strain hardening and pseudoelasticity. These materials can be machined using non-conventional methods such as laser machining, water jet machining （WJM） and electrochemical machining （ECM）, but these processes are limited to complexity and mechanical properties of the component. Electrical discharge machining （EDM） and wire EDM （WEDM） show high capability to machine SMAs of complex shapes with precise dimensions. The aim of this work is to present the consolidated references on the machining of SMAs using EDM and WEDM and subsequently identify the research gaps. In support to these research gaps, this work has also evolved the future research directions.