Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on Microstructure and Tribological Property Evolution of Electron Beam Melted Ti6Al4V

Cryogenic treatment was used to improve the tribological properties of Ti6Al4V artificial hip joint implants.Cryogenic treatment at-196℃with different holding time were carried out on Ti6Al4V specimens fabricated using electron beam melting(EBM),and their microstructure and tribological properties evolution were systematically analyzed by scanning electron microscopy(SEM),vickers hardness,and wear tests.The experimental results show that the as-fabricated specimen consists of lamellarαphase andβcolumnar crystal.While,the thickness of lamellarαphase decreased after cryogenic treatment.In addition,it can be found that the fineαphase was precipitated and dispersed between the lamellarαphase with the holding time increase.Vickers hardness shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing.The wear rate of the specimen cryogenic treated for 24 h is the minimum and the average friction coefficient is 0.50,which is reduced by 14.61%compared with the as-fabricated.The wear mechanism of the as-fabricated specimen is severe exfoliation,adhesive,abrasive,and slight fatigue wear.However,the specimen cryogenic treated for 24 h shows slight adhesive and abrasive wear.It can be concluded that it is feasibility of utilizing cryogenic treatment to reduce the wear of EBMed Ti6Al4V.

Impurities evaporation from metallurgical-grade silicon in electron beam melting process

The purification of metallurgical-grade silicon （MG-Si） has been investigated during electron beam melting （EBM） process. The results show that the phosphorus, calcium and aluminum contents decrease significantly after melting, and magnesium is partially removed. However, no significant change in content for boron and iron has been found. Langmuir＇s equation and Henry law were used to derive the removal effi-ciency for each impurity element. The free surface temperature was estimated by the Hertz-Knudsen-Langmuir equation and silicon＇s vapor pressure equation. Good agreement was found between measured and calculated impurities＇ removal efficiency for phosphorus, calcium and aluminum, magnesium, boron and iron. The deviation between the two results was also analyzed in depth.

Mechanical properties of TiAl fabricated by electron beam melting-A review

As a typical intermetallic material,TiAl is inevitably difficult to process by conventional methods.Additive manufacturing(AM)has recently become a new option for making net-shape TiAl components.Among all AM methods,electron beam melting(EBM)shows the potential to make TiAl components with good mechanical properties and is used for low pressure turbine blades.The mechanical properties,including tensile and compression properties,fracture toughness,fatigue and creep properties of EBM TiAl are reviewed and compared to the conventionally fabricated alloys.Results show that the tensile strength of EBM alloys is higher than cast alloys,and other properties are comparable to the cast/forged alloys.The sensitivity of mechanical properties and microstructure to EBM processing parameters is presented.Issues including layered microstructure,anisotropy in mechanical properties,and fatigue failure from defects are also reviewed.Finally,some opportunities and challenges of EBM TiAl are identified.

Data Mining for Mesoscopic Simulation of Electron Beam Selective Melting

In the electron beam selective melting(EBSM)process,the quality of each deposited melt track has an effect on the properties of the manufactured component.However,the formation of the melt track is governed by various physical phenomena and influenced by various process parameters,and the correlation of these parameters is complicated and difficult to establish experimentally.The mesoscopic modeling technique was recently introduced as a means of simulating the electron beam(EB)melting process and revealing the formation mechanisms of specific melt track morphologies.However,the correlation between the process parameters and the melt track features has not yet been quantitatively understood.This paper investigates the morphological features of the melt track from the results of mesoscopic simulation,while introducing key descriptive indexes such as melt track width and height in order to numerically assess the deposition quality.The effects of various processing parameters are also quantitatively investigated,and the correlation between the processing conditions and the melt track features is thereby derived.Finally,a simulation-driven optimization framework consisting of mesoscopic modeling and data mining is proposed,and its potential and limitations are discussed.

Influence of multiple laser shock peening treatments on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy fabricated by electron beam melting

Laser shock peening(LSP)is an attractive post-processing method to tailor surface microstructure and enhance mechanical performances of additive manufactured(AM)components.The effects of multiple LSP treatments on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V part produced by electron beam melting(EBM),as a mature AM process,were studied in this work.Microstructure,surface topography,residual stress,and tensile performance of EBM-manufactured Ti-6Al-4V specimens were systematically analyzed subjected to different LSP treatments.The distribution of porosities in EBM sample was assessed via X-ray computed tomography.The results showed that EBM samples with two LSP treatments possessed a lower porosity value of 0.05%compared to the value of 0.08%for the untreated samples.The strength of EBM samples with two LSP treatments was remarkably raised by 12%as compared with the as-built samples.The grains ofαphase were refined in near-surface layer,and a dramatic increase in the depth and magnitude of compressive residual stress(CRS)was achieved in EBM sample with multiple LSP treatments.The grain refinement ofαphase and CRS with larger depth were responsible for the strength enhancement of EBM samples with two LSP treatments.

Effect of Melt Scan Rate on Microstructure and Macrostructure for Electron Beam Melting of Ti-6Al-4V

Microstructure and variations in porosity in Ti-6Al-4V samples built with electron beam melting (EBM) over a range of melt scan speeds, ranging from 100 mm·s-1 to 1000 mm·s-1 were examined. Microstructure was characterized by refinement of α-phase and transformation to α′-martensite. Light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy were used to observe these phenomena, while corresponding tensile testing and associated macro and microindentation hardness measurements were used to define the microstructural variations. Relative stiffness was observed to be linearly log-log related to relative density, corresponding to ideal porosity associated with open-cellular structures.

A yttrium-containing high-temperature titanium alloy additively manufactured by selective electron beam melting

A yttrium-containing high-temperature titanium alloy(Ti-6Al-2.7Sn-4Zr-0.4Mo-0.45Si-0.1Y, mass fraction, %) has been additively manufactured using selective electron beam melting(SEBM). The resulting microstructure and textures were studied using scanning electron microscopy(SEM), transmission electron microscopy(TEM), X-ray diffraction(XRD) and electron backscattered diffraction(EBSD) and compared with the conventionally manufactured form. A notable distinct difference of microstructures is that additive manufacturing by SEBM enables homogeneous precipitation of fine Y2O3 dispersoids in the size range of 50-250 nm throughout the as-fabricated alloy, despite the presence of just trace levels of oxygen(7×10-4, mass fraction) and yttrium(10-3, mass fraction) in the alloy. In contrast, the conventionally manufactured alloy shows inhomogeneously distributed coarse Y2O3 precipitates, including cracked or debonded Y2O3 particles.

Performance of Ti6Al4V fabricated by electron beam and laser hybrid preheating and selective melting strategy

Electron beam selective melting(EBM)and selective laser melting(SLM)are regarded as significant manufacturing processes for near-net-shaped Ti6Al4V components.Generally,in the conventional EBM process,preheating is necessitated to avoid"smoke"caused by the charging of electrons.In the conventional SLM process,laser as an energy source without the risk of"smoke"can be employed to melt metal powder at low temperatures.However,because of the low absorption rate of laser,the powder bed temperature cannot reach a high level.It is difficult to obtain as-built TiAl4V with favorable comprehensive properties via conventional EBM or SLM.Hence,two types of electron beam and laser hybrid preheating(EB-LHP)combined with selective melting strategies are proposed.Using laser to preheat powder allows EBM to be performed at a low powder bed temperature(EBM-LT),whereas using an electron beam to preheat powder allows SLM to be performed at a high powder bed temperature(SLM-HT).Ti6Al4V samples are fabricated using two different manufacturing strategies(i.e.,EBM-LT and SLM-HT)and two conventional processes,i.e.,EBM at a high powder bed temperature(EBM-HT)and SLM at a low powder bed temperature(SLM-LT).The temperature-dependent surface quality,microstructure,density,and mechanical properties of the as-built Ti6Al4V samples are characterized and compared.Results show that EBM-LT Ti6Al4V exhibits a higher ultimate tensile strength(981±43 MPa)and a lower elongation(12.2%±2.3%)than EBM-HT Ti6Al4V owing to the presence ofα′martensite.The SLM-HT Ti6Al4V possesses the highest ultimate tensile strength(1,059±62 MPa)and an elongation(14.8%±4.0%)comparable to that of the EBM-HT Ti6Al4V(16.6%±1.2%).

Investigation on gradient material fabrication with electron beam melting based on scanning track control

A new electron beam control system was developed in a general vacuum electron beam machine by assembling with industrial control computer, programmable logic control （PLC）, deflection coil, data acquisition card, power amplifier, etc. In this control system, scanning track and energy distribution of electron beam could be edited off-line, real-time adjusted and controlled on-line. Ti-Mo gradient material （GM） with high temperature resistant was fabricated using the technology of electron beam melting. The melting processes include three steps, such as preheating, melting, and homogenizing. The results show that the GM prepared by melting technology has fine appearance, and it has good integrated interface with the Ti alloy. Mo and Ti elements are gradually distributed in the inter.face of the gradient material. The microstructure close to the Ti alloy base metal is α ＋ β basket-waver grain, and the microstructure close to the GM is a single phase of β solid solution.

Using Cavitation Peening to Improve the Fatigue Life of Titanium Alloy Ti-6Al-4V Manufactured by Electron Beam Melting

Although Electron Beam Melting (EBM) is an innovative technology, the fatigue properties of materials manufactured by EBM may be lower than those of casted and wrought materials due to defects and surface roughness. In order to enhance the fatigue life of components or structures manufactured by EBM, a mechanical surface treatment technology, e.g., peening, would be effective because peening introduces high compressive residual stress at the surface which can extend the fatigue life considerably. In the present study, specimens were manufactured by EBM using titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V powder. Two types of specimens were prepared: as-built and as-machined specimens. Specimens of each type were treated by cavitation peening or shot peening. The fatigue lives of the specimens were evaluated by a plate bending fatigue tester. The residual stress and surface roughness were also evaluated. The results obtained showed that the fatigue strength of as-built specimens can be improved by 21% by cavitation peening or shot peening, and the fatigue life under particular applied stresses can also be extended by 178% by cavitation peening.

Influence of powder oxidation on powder properties and formability in H13 hot-work steels processed by electron beam melting

The oxygen content of metal powder is decisive for the recyclability of powder.The research on the effect of oxygen content on powder properties and material formability has practical significance for economical production with additive manufacturing while preventing the waste of resources.Here,we deliberately oxidized the powder by baking at high temperature to increase the oxygen content in the powder and gave the calculation method of the oxygen content in the powder oxidation film.The majority of oxygen element was found in the oxide particles in the powder and the oxide flm on the powder surface,which did affect the flowability of the powder.It is worth noting that the increase in the oxygen content does not change the phase of H13 steel,but it can promote the molten pool flow and obtain a smoother surface.The increase in the oxygen content in the powder is not the decisive factor for the formability and defects of the printed samples.It is the combined effect of the powder deformation,the increase in the oxygen content,and the impurity pollution after repeated use,which leads to the limitation of repeated utilization of the powder.

Inclusions in melting process of titanium and titanium alloys

This paper summarizes melting methods of titanium and titanium alloy, such as vacuum arc melting(VAR) and electron beam cold hearth melting(EBCHM), and the related inclusions formed when using these melting methods. Low-density inclusions are resulted from contamination of air, and high-density inclusions are caused by refractory elements. The formation process of inclusions was analysed. The removal mechanism of different kinds of inclusions was specified. Low-density inclusions are removed mainly by resolving. This is a comprehensive process containing reaction diffusion. The resolving rate of high-density inclusions is so low that these inclusions are mainly removed by sedimentation. The experiments and physical models of inclusions are detailed. In various melting methods, vacuum arc melting is prominent. However, this method cannot remove inclusions effectively, which usually results in repeat melting. Electron beam cold hearth melting has the best ability of removing inclusions. These results can provide instructions to researchers of titanium and titanium alloys.

Low-cost surface modification of a biomedical Zr-2.5Nb alloy fabricated by electron beam melting

The Zr-2.5Nb alloy with a fine microstructure consisting ofαlaths was successfully prepared by electron beam melting(EBM).The thermal oxidation behaviors and kinetics of the as-built,and the EBM-built and hot isostatically pressed(HIPed)Zr-2.5Nb materials in a temperature range of 450-600°C were in-vestigated and compared with those of the alloy prepared by conventional casting and forging.It was found that the oxidation kinetics of the as-built and the forged materials followed the parabolic rate law during isothermal oxidation at 550°C,but the HIPed materials exhibited a parabolic-to-linear kinetic transition,suggesting that the larger grain sizes enhanced the oxidation.The oxide layers of all materials were composed of a large fraction of monoclinic zirconia phase(m-ZrO_(2))and a small fraction of tetrago-nal zirconia phase(t-ZrO_(2)),and transformed from t-ZrO_(2)to m-ZrO_(2)with increasing oxidation time.The surface hardness of the as-built,the forged and the HIPed materials increased from 215,204,and 188 HV before oxidation to 902,1070,and 1137 HV after oxidation,respectively.The cross-sections of the materi-als showed the presence of micropores and microcracks inside the oxide layers with thicknesses ranging from 4 to 8μm.With the oxidation temperature of 600°C and oxidation time duration of 3 h,a dense black m-ZrO_(2)oxide layer with smooth surface and 902 HV hardness was obtained on the EBM as-built Zr-2.5Nb materials.

Finite Element Prediction of Residual Stress in Rhombic Dodecahedron Ti‑6Al‑4V Titanium Alloy Additively Manufactured by Electron Beam Melting

In this work,a three-dimensional nonlinear transient thermo-mechanically coupled finite element model(FEM)is established to investigate the variation in temperature and stress fields during electron beam melting(EBM)of rhombic dodecahedron Ti-6Al-4V alloy.The influence of the processing parameters on the temperature and residual stress evolutions was predicted and verified against existing literature data.The calculated results indicate that the interlayer cooling time has very little effect on both the temperature and stress evolutions,indicating that the interlayer cooling time can be set up as short as possible to reduce manufacturing time.It is presented that the residual stress of the intersection is higher than that of non-intersection.With increasing preheating temperature,the residual stress decreases continuously,which is about 20%–30%for every 50℃rise in temperature.The temperature and stress fields repeated every four layers with the complex periodic scanning strategy.Both x and y-component residual stresses are tensile stresses,while z-component stress is weak compressive or tensile stress in typical paths.It is proposed that the interlayer cooling is necessary to obtain a rhombic dodecahedron with low residual stress.These results can bring insights into the understanding of the residual stress during EBM.

模型处理对SEBM法制备TC4合金成型性能影响

模型处理是影响电子束选区熔化(SEBM)成型件性能和精度的关键因素之一。以TC4钛合金为研究对象,利用电子束选区熔化快速成型技术制备横、竖两种不同摆放方式打印的R7拉伸试件,并对拉伸试件进行室温拉伸试验。结果表明:横向摆放的打印试件的力学性能,比竖向摆放的打印试件的更优;对拉伸断口进行宏观断口分析发现,横向摆放的打印试件断口处没有明显的塑性变形且断裂位置几乎在中间,而竖向打印的试件断口有明显的被拉长且断裂位置在试件上方;对试件沿长度方向剖开,分别选取试件上下两段进行金相组织观察分析发现,横向打印试件上下端金相组织差异不大,但竖向打印上端呈现出α相及转变相,并且存在分层和气孔缺陷。由于横向摆放位置的打印试件与加工电子枪扫描方向一致,且受热均匀,因此具有较好的组织特性。

Microstructure and Mechanical Performance of Ti-6Al-4V Lattice Structures Manufactured via Electron Beam Melting(EBM):A Review

Electron beam melting(EBM) process is an additive manufacturing process largely used to produce complex metallic components made of high-performance materials for aerospace and medical applications.Especially,lattice structures made by Ti-6A1-4V have represented a hot topic for the industrial sectors because of having a great potential to combine lower weights and higher performances that can also be tailored by subsequent heat treatments.However,the little knowledge about the mechanical behaviour of the lattice structures is limiting their applications.The present work aims to provide a comprehensive review of the studies on the mechanical behaviour of the lattice structures made of Ti-6A1-4V.The main steps to produce an EBM part were considered as guidelines to review the literature on the lattice performance:(1) design,(2) process and(3) post-heat treatment.Thereafter,the correlation between the geometrical features of the lattice structure and their mechanical behaviour is discussed.In addition,the correlation among the mechanical performance of the lattice structures and the process precision,surface roughness and working temperature are also reviewed.An investigation on the studies about the properties of heat-treated lattice structure is also conducted.

铜及铜合金增材制造技术现状和发展趋势

文章介绍了目前用于增材制造(AM)的铜及铜合金原料粉末的种类及制备方法,总结了国内外铜基零件AM技术的现状。重点阐述了不同AM方法的工艺流程和优缺点,分析了影响零件质量的技术难点和相应的解决方案,并对铜基零件AM技术的发展方向进行了展望。

静磁场下电子束运动行为仿真

电子束具有能量集中、能量转化效率高等特点,广泛用于金属精炼、增材制造等金属加工领域。在电子束熔炼过程中引入外磁场,可调控熔体流动与凝固组织,改善材料性能,但磁场会导致电子束偏转,造成熔区偏移。针对此问题,本研究基于COMSOL仿真软件对静磁场下电子与电子束在不同外加磁场强度、发射角、扫描角及发射距离参数下的运动行为进行建模与仿真分析。结果表明:磁场下电子束与单电子的运动行为相似;在一定外加磁场下实现电子束熔炼需满足一定的临界发射角和扫描角条件,如在背景磁场为0.15 T时,发射角需小于35°,且当发射角为0°时,扫描角介于−3.5°~+3.5°之间;磁场越强,电子(束)偏转越剧烈,其临界条件范围越窄;磁场对电子(束)具有筛选、聚焦及约束作用,在满足临界发射角和扫描角条件下任意发射距离的电子(束)均能进入坩埚。本研究可为磁场辅助电子束熔炼及其他相关技术的开发提供指导。

电子束选区熔化TaNbTiZr难熔高熵合金的微观组织与力学性能

难熔高熵合金(RHEAs)表现出优异的高温性能,在航空航天、核能等领域具有广泛应用前景。然而,由于难熔高熵合金(RHEAs)组成元素熔点高,因此常规加工制造方法制备难度大。本研究以等离子旋转电极雾化法(PREP)制备的高质量TaNbTiZr难熔高熵合金球形粉末为原料,通过电子束选区熔化(EBM)制备TaNbTiZr难熔高熵合金,利用正交实验研究了工艺参数对合金微观组织和力学性能的影响。结果表明:EBM样品的致密度随着线能量密度的增大呈先上升后下降的趋势,线能量密度为37.5 J/m的样品致密度最高,相对致密度达到98%。TaNbTiZr难熔高熵合金在XOY和XOZ面均呈细小的等轴晶结构,平均晶粒尺寸分别为6.32μm和6.93μm。晶粒内部由富含Nb、Ta的BCC1基体相和富Zr的BCC2网状边界组成。TaNbTiZr难熔高熵合金具有优异的力学性能,其屈服强度、抗拉强度、断裂伸长率分别为988 MPa、1173 MPa和3.99%。理论计算表明,该合金的高屈服强度主要源于高晶格畸变强化和高细晶强化效应。

电子束熔融辐照对EVA绝缘性能的影响

采用电子束熔融辐照的方法对EVA材料进行辐照改性,研究不同辐照剂量对EVA样品凝胶含量、力学性能、体积电阻率、介电性能、击穿特性和分子结构的影响。结果表明:EVA样品的凝胶含量随着辐照剂量的增加先升高后降低,在辐照剂量为100 kGy时,凝胶含量达到了95.7%;辐照会降低EVA样品的断裂伸长率,而拉伸强度随着辐照剂量的增加先升高后降低;辐照后EVA样品的绝缘性能均有不同程度的提高,随着辐照剂量的增加,体积电阻率先增大后减小,介电常数先减小后增大,电气强度先增大后减小。