Thermal fatigue and wear of compacted graphite iron brake discs with various thermomechanical properties

The increase in payload capacity of trucks has heightened the demand for cost-effective yet high performance brake discs.In this work,the thermal fatigue and wear of compacted graphite iron brake discs were investigated,aiming to provide an experimental foundation for achieving a balance between their thermal and mechanical properties.Compacted graphite iron brake discs with different tensile strengths,macrohardnesses,specific heat capacities and thermal diffusion coefficients were produced by changing the proportion and strength of ferrite.The peak temperature,pressure load and friction coefficient of compacted graphite iron brake discs were analyzed through inertia friction tests.The morphology of thermal cracks and 3D profiles of the worn surfaces were also discussed.It is found that the thermal fatigue of compacted graphite iron discs is determined by their thermal properties.A compacted graphite iron with the highest specific heat capacity and thermal diffusion coefficient exhibits optimal thermal fatigue resistance.Oxidization of the matrix at low temperatures significantly weakens the function of alloy strengthening in hindering the propagation of thermal cracks.Despite the reduced hardness,increasing the ferrite proportion can mitigate wear loss resulting from low disc temperatures and the absence of abrasive wear.

Sustainable Biocomposites Materials for Automotive Brake Pad Application:An Overview

Research into converting waste into viable eco-friendly products has gained global concern.Using natural fibres and pulverized metallic waste becomes necessary to reduce noxious environmental emissions due to indiscriminately occupying the land.This study reviews the literature in the broad area of green composites in search of materials that can be used in automotive brake pads.Materials made by biocomposite,rather than fossil fuels,will be favoured.A database containing the tribo-mechanical performance of numerous potential components for the future green composite was established using the technical details of bio-polymers and natural reinforcements.The development of materials with diverse compositions and varying proportions is now conceivable,and these materials can be permanently connected in fully regulated processes.This explanation demonstrates that all of these variables affect friction coefficient,resistance to wear from friction and high temperatures,and the operating life of brake pads to varying degrees.In this study,renewable materials for the matrix and reinforcement are screened to determine which have sufficient strength,coefficient of friction,wear resistance properties,and reasonable costs,making them a feasible option for a green composite.The most significant,intriguing,and unusual materials used in manufacturing brake pads are gathered in this review,which also analyzes how they affect the tribological characteristics of the pads.

Dynamic mechanical characteristics of NdFeB in electromagnetic brake

With the continuous development of artillery,the disadvantages of hydraulic recoil brakes gradually appear.At the same time,the appearance of high-performance Nd Fe B permanent magnet makes it possible to apply electromagnetic braking technology to recoil mechanism.In this paper,prototype tests of a certain artillery were carried out to verify the feasibility of the electromagnetic brake(EMB)and obtain the electromagnetic braking force.Due to the brittleness of Nd Fe B,in order to eliminate the worry about the safety of EMB,SHPB experiments of Nd Fe B were carried out.Then,based on the assumption of uniform crack distribution,the law of crack propagation and damage accumulation was described theoretically,and the damage constitutive model suitable for brittle materials was proposed by combining the Zhu-Wang-Tang(ZWT)equation.Finally,the numerical simulation model of the artillery prototype was established and through calculation,the dynamic mechanical characteristics of Nd Fe B in the prototype were analyzed.The calculation results show that the strength of Nd Fe B can meet the requirements of the use in the working process.From the perspective of damage factor,the damage value of the permanent magnet on the far right is larger,and the damage value of the inner ring gradually decreases to the outer ring.

An approach for simulating the air brake system of long freight trains based on fluid dynamics

Air brake systems are critical equipment for railway trains, which affects the running safety of the trains significantly. To study air braking characteristics of long freight trains, an approach for simulating air brake systems based on fuid dynamics theory was proposed. The structures and working mechanisms of locomotive and wagon air brakes are introduced, and mathematical models of the pipes, brake valves, reservoirs or chambers, cylinders, etc., are presented.Besides, the dynamic motions of parts in the main valve are considered. The simulation model of the whole air brake system is then formulated, and the solving method based on the finite-difference method is used. New efficient pipe boundary conditions without iterations are developed for brake pipes and branch pipes, which can achieve higher computational efficiency. The proposed approach for simulating the air brake system is validated by comparing with published measured data. Simulation results of different train formations indicate that models that consider the dynamic behavior of brake pipes are recommended for predicting the characteristics of long trains under service braking conditions.

A numerical method for the simulation of freight train emergency braking operations based on the UIC braked weight percentage

The present paper shows the development of a strategy for the calculation of the air brake forces of European freight trains. The model is built to upgrade the existing Politecnico di Torino longitudinal train dynamics(LTD) code LTDPoliTo, which was originally unable to account for air brake forces. The proposed model uses an empirical exponential function to calculate the air brake forces during the simulation, while the maximum normal force on the brake friction elements is calculated according to the indication of the vehicle braked weight percentage.Hence, the model does not require to simulate in detail the fluid dynamics in the brake pipe nor to precisely know the main parameters of the braking system mounted on each vehicle. The model parameters are tuned to minimize the difference between the braking distance computed by the LTDPoliTo code and the value prescribed by the UIC544-1 leaflet in emergency braking operations. Simulations are run for different configurations of freight train compositions including a variable number of Shimmns wagons trailed by an E402B locomotive at the head of the train, as suggested in a reference literature paper. The results of the proposed method are in good agreement with the target braking distances calculated according to the international rules.

A simplified pneumatic model for air brake of passenger trains

Braking system performance is relevant for both railway safety and network optimization. Most trains employ air brake systems;air brake systems of freight trains mostly cannot achieve a synchronous application of brake forces, which is usually customary for passenger trains. The paper generalizes a previous air brake pneumatic model to passenger trains and describes the needed modifications. Among them, the way the pressure reduces in the brake pipe is generalized. Moreover, this paper reports an analytical bi-dimensional function for calculating the nozzle diameter equivalent to the electro-pneumatic(EP) or the electronically controlled pneumatic(ECP)brake valve as a function of the wagon length and the time to vent the brake pipe locally. The numerical results of the new model are compared against several experimental tests of high-speed passenger trains of Trenitalia, namely ETR500 and ETR1000. The model is suitable to be integrated into the UIC software TrainDy, aiming to extend its computational field to passenger trains and to simulate the safety of trains during a recovery.

Assessment of Asbestos Exposure Associated with a Brake Grinder

The wear patterns for drum-style automotive brakes tend to enlarge internal drum diameters. Such enlargement is most profound when used brake drums are machined to restore the metal friction surfaces. Specialized arc grinding machinery has been used to match replacement shoe-style brake friction materials to enlarged drums. The process of arc grinding removes friction material, thereby producing dust. When organic-style friction materials contained asbestos, use of arc grinding machinery posed an asbestos fiber exposure risk to operators and proximate personnel. The manufacturers of arc grinding machinery have incorporated local exhaust ventilation systems designed to capture and remove this dust at the point of grinding contact and propel this dust into collection bags or other systems. This research was designed to evaluate the dust capture and retention characteristics of a specific arc grinder product, when used to custom grind asbestos-containing brake friction materials. A Bear Model 1420 automotive brake shoe arc grinder was the subject of this study. During two separate but consecutive test sessions, newly relined sets of shoe-style automobile brake friction materials were precision ground. Both area and personal air samples were collected throughout each testing session. This work took place within a closed and unventilated metal building, with total interior volume of 2500 m3. Collected air samples were analyzed using phase contrast microscopy (PCM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results of analysis using PCM for personal samples (n = 6) ranged from <0.044 to 0.055 fibers per cc (f/cc) (mean 0.05). Follow-up analysis of these personal samples using TEM indicated asbestos-adjusted PCM exposures ranging from <0.0074 to 0.055 f/cc (mean ≤ 0.041). Area air samples, taken at distances ranging from 1.5 to 9 meters from the arc grinder (n = 12), showed asbestos-adjusted PCM concentrations ranging from <0.0075 to 0.041 f/cc (mean ≤ 0.017). The process of custom arc grinding shoe-style, asbestos-containing brake friction materials can cause exposure to airborne asbestos fibers. However, when done using properly equipped arc grinding machines, such exposures are not expected to exceed the current occupational exposure limits for asbestos of 0.1 f/cc 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) or 1.0 f/cc 30-minute average.

Analysis of a Cashew Shell and Fly Ash Rich Brake Liner Composite Material

Hybrid materials collected from organic and inorganic sources,which are traditionally used as brake lining materials,generally include fly ash,cashew shell powder,phenolic resins,aluminium wool,barites,lime powder,carbon powder and copper powder.The present research focuses on the specific effects produced by fly ash and aims to provide useful indications for the replacement of asbestos due to the health hazards caused by the related fibers.Furthermore,the financial implications related to the use of large-volume use of fly ash,lime stone and cashew shell powder,readily available in most countries in the world,are also discussed.It is shown that many manufacturing and automotive industries,which are currently experiencing difficulties in meeting the increasing demand for brake lining material,may take advantage from the proposed solution.

Blended Regenerative Anti-Lock Braking System and Electronic Wedge Brake Coordinate Control Ensuring Maximal Energy Recovery and Stability of All-Wheel-Motor-Drive Electric Vehicles

ABS is an active safety system which showed a valuable contribution to vehicle safety and stability since it was first introduced. Recently, EVs with in-wheel-motors have drawn increasing attention owing to their greatest advantages. Wheels torques are precisely and swiftly controlled thanks to electric motors and their advanced driving techniques. In this paper, a regenerative-ABS control RABS is proposed for all-in-wheel-motors-drive EVs. The RABS is realized as a pure electronic braking system called brake-by-wire. A coordination strategy is suggested to control RABS compromising three layers. First, wheels slip control takes place, and braking torque is calculated in the higher layer. In the coordinate interlayer, torque is allocated between actuators ensuring maximal energy recovery and vehicle stability. While in the lower layer, actuator control is performed. The RABS effectiveness is validated on a 3-DOF EVSimulink model through two straight-line braking manoeuvres with low and high initial speeds of 50 km/h and 150 km/h, respectively. Both regular and emergency braking manoeuvres are considered with ABS enabled and disabled for comparison. Simulation results showed the high performance of the proposed RABS control in terms of vehicle stability, brake response, stopping distance, and battery re-charging.

A trailer car dynamics model considering brake rigging of a high-speed train and its application

Brake systems are essential for the speed regulation or braking of a high-speed train.The vehicle dynamic performance under braking condition is complex and directly affects the reliability and running safety.To reveal the vehicle dynamic behaviour in braking process,a comprehensive trailer car dynamics model(TCDM)considering brake systems is established in this paper.The dynamic interactions between the brake system and the other connected components are achieved using the brake disc-pad frictions,brake suspension systems,and wheel-rail interactions.The force and motion transmission from the brake system to the wheel-rail interface is performed by the proposed TCDM excited by track irregularity.In addition,the validity of TCDM is verified by experimental test results.On this basis,the dynamic behaviour of the coupled system is simulated and discussed.The findings indicate that the braking force significantly affects vehicle dynamic behaviour including the wheel-rail forces,suspension forces,wheelset torsional vibration,etc.The dynamic interactions within the brake system are also significantly affected by the vehicle vibration due to track irregularity.Besides,the developed TCDM can be further employed to the dynamic assessment of such a coupled mechanical system under different braking conditions.

Typical faults and safety analysis of brake controller for AC locomotive

Purpose–The brake controller is a key component of the locomotive brake system.It is essential to study its safety.Design/methodology/approach–This paper summarizes and analyzes typical faults of the brake controller,and proposes four categories of faults:position sensor faults,microswitch faults,mechanical faults and communication faults.Suggestions and methods for improving the safety of the brake controller are also presented.Findings–In this paper,a self-judgment and self-learning dynamic calibration method is proposed,which integrates the linear error of the sensor and the manufacturing and assembly errors of the brake controller to solve the output drift.This paper also proposes a logic for diagnosing and handling microswitch faults.Suggestions are proposed for other faults of brake controller.Originality/value–The methods proposed in this paper can greatly improve the usability of the brake controller and reduce the failure rate.

面向线控制动车辆单轮制动失效的稳定性控制

基于线控制动系统四轮可独立控制的特点,提出一种协同线控转向与线控制动的制动力实时分配的控制方法。该方法根据三轮富余制动力能否补偿失效轮损失制动力,按制动强度分为轻度、中度和重度制动3种工况,针对重度制动工况下制动力补偿不足问题,基于积分滑模控制方法设计前轮主动转向器,综合考虑单轮制动失效时各轮垂直载荷的变化和前轮转角介入后轮胎力的耦合,采用序列二次规划算法(sequental quadratic programming,SQP),实时分配剩余三轮制动力。仿真结果表明:在不同制动强度及不同轮制动失效下所提控制方法相较于无控制,横向跑偏分别减少了89.98%、91.90%、96.96%、89.62%,制动强度至少达到正常制动时的97.5%。因此,该控制方法在保证横向稳定性的同时最大限度地满足驾驶员的制动期望,有效抑制因单轮制动失效导致的车辆跑偏甩尾等问题。

踏面与盘式两种制动模式温度分布特征的模拟分析

探究1∶1踏面制动与缩比盘式制动得到的温度场存在偏差的原因,有利于提高利用缩比制动模式评价制动摩擦副热负荷能力的精度。基于TM-I型缩比车辆制动试验台和1∶1制动试验台,采用ADINA有限元软件,在制动压力10、15、20 kN和初速度60、80、105 km/h条件下,模拟计算2种制动模式的温度场,并分析影响2种制动模式温度偏差的因素。结果表明:1∶1踏面制动模式和缩比盘式制动模式得到的温度存在明显差别,踏面制动的温度均高于缩比盘式制动的温度;2种制动模式的温度差别随压力的变化不明显,但随制动初速度增加而明显加大;踏面制动由于摩擦面积集中,散热程度不良,随初速度从60 km/h增加到105 km/h,制动温度增加幅度为56%~77%,盘式制动由于摩擦弧长沿盘半径方向的不均匀,散热面积大,制动温度随初速度增加幅度为32%~44%。

飞机高速牵引滑行制动模式分析

在传统牵引车牵引飞机的运动过程中,其制动行为是通过牵引车独立制动来完成的,主要用于低速推出牵引和轻载中速维护牵引工况。针对未来飞机牵引滑行的高速重载新特征,仅靠牵引车实施制动能否满足牵引系统制动性能需要重新评估。为此,文中考虑了由飞机和牵引车联合制动的新模式,即由飞机主起落架机轮刹车系统和牵引车轮刹车系统同时制动,通过分配制动力来实现牵引车-飞机系统的制动行为。建立了飞机牵引滑行时制动过程的动力学模型,并以B737-200型飞机和TBL-180型牵引车为例,分析对比了牵引车单独制动和牵引车-飞机联合制动两种模式下的系统制动性能和制动安全性。结果表明:牵引车-飞机联合制动时的制动性能远优于牵引车单独制动时的制动性能,是飞机高速牵引滑行时紧急制动的优选模式;在安全性方面,牵引车-飞机联合制动时的前起落架横向载荷也远小于牵引车单独制动,会为飞机前起落架结构保留更大的横向冲击安全裕度。

高温环境下弹簧功能-传感共形位移测量装置及方法

机械装备的位移测量是状态检测和运动控制的关键,基于激光、电涡流、电感和电阻等原理的常规位移测量方法无法应对高端装备紧凑测试空间和高温、油污等恶劣环境条件下的位移测量挑战。基于材料力学与弹簧结构,构建一种新的弹簧功能-传感共形的位移测量模型,对弹簧整体受力及位移进行分析,确定位移-应变映射关系;基于有限元方法建立弹簧的应变-位移模型,分析弹簧位移测量的敏感点、不同组桥形式、位移激励频率等因素影响;通过搭建电液伺服高频冲击试验台,在扫频和加热工况下进行弹簧位移测量装置及方法的有效性和动态性能测试。试验结果表明:加载频率在100 Hz及以下时测试精度可达0.06 mm,高温适应性不低于275℃;经车用干片式制动器高温制动试验应用验证,在工作温度160℃以上仍能实时稳定获取机构的动态位移信号,为高温制动器状态检测及其故障诊断提供了嵌入式测试技术支撑;该共形位移测量方法在高温条件下具有良好的线性度和精度,为紧凑空间及高温等恶劣环境下位移测量提供了一种有效方法,尤其是在具有弹簧等弹性元件的情况下能够实现对原系统无影响的嵌入式测试。

考虑前车制动意图的自动紧急制动策略及其测试评价方法

为提高车辆自动紧急制动(AEB)系统的避撞性能,提出了一种考虑前车制动意图的AEB策略及其测试评价方法。通过搭建“PreScan+Simulink+驾驶模拟器”联合仿真平台采集驾驶人制动数据,基于K-均值(K-Means)聚类方法对制动意图进行分类,采用滑动时间窗口提取了意图识别模型训练数据集;通过双层隐马尔可夫模型识别前车制动意图,主车根据不同制动意图计算临界安全距离阈值并制定避撞控制策略;建立PreScan+Simulink虚拟仿真测试环境,提出了基于层次分析法的AEB策略综合评价方法,通过与4种典型AEB控制模型进行对比,验证了所提出方法在不同制动程度场景下均可及时触发制动以避免碰撞,同时可减少过早制动造成的驾驶不适感。

机车充风能力对重载列车缓解性能及车钩力影响研究

机车充气与排气性能是列车制动系统重要指标,目前机车制动系统验收指标仅对排气性能有明确要求,对充气性能无要求。机车供风能力不仅影响重载列车缓解特性和车钩力,而且严重制约重载列车在循环制动中的操纵方法。了解机车充气能力对缓解特性和车钩力的影响规律,以及重载列车安全运行和制动系统设计具有重要意义。通过建立列车空气制动系统仿真模型,分析机车充风能力对重载列车缓解特性和车钩力的影响。分析发现,机车充风能力对列车再充风时间、缓解波传播和车钩力都有明显影响;充风能力越弱,则缓解波传递越慢,车钩力越大。在本文研究范围内,合适的充气能力将比弱充风能力首尾车缓解时间差缩短3 s,最大车钩力降低16.2%。建议机车验收时增加机车充风能力检测,并给出了建议检测标准。针对重载列车充风能力,建议多部门联合系统性开展实验与仿真研究,制订重载列车制动系统检测标准与方法。

试验环境的盘式制动器NVH特性研究

文中采用多体动力学和声学边界元等数值方法,研究某盘式制动器试验条件下的NVH(Noise,Vibration,Harshness)特性。首先,建立试验环境的制动器刚柔耦合模型,从结构、激励源和传递路径3个方面分析制动NVH特性影响因素;然后,运用声学边界元法仿真得到制动振动辐射的噪声,并与台架试验结果进行比较。结果表明:制动盘第2~5阶轴向模态,支架第2~3阶轴向模态,以及制动钳和连接板第1阶轴向模态等模态固有频率与台架试验噪声频率较接近,可能引起共振而产生制动噪声;在不影响制动性能的前提下,改变制动盘与摩擦衬片阻尼系数能改善制动NVH特性;悬架螺旋弹簧下端振动大,减振器与衬套对振动具有显著衰减作用;由仿真声压级云图发现,制动盘与摩擦片接触部位声压级最大,且随频率增加呈先增后减趋势,与台架试验对应测点的噪声结果进行直接比较,两者趋势一致。

考虑道路识别的四驱电动汽车再生制动策略

为了充分利用路面附着条件分配再生制动力,提高制动能量回收率,根据双电动机四驱结构电动汽车复合制动系统的特点,对其制动能量回收控制策略进行了研究.分析了驱动轮与地面附着特性,设计了道路识别器来计算每个轮胎与当前路面之间的峰值附着系数,并使用模糊控制策略确定每个车轮与8种道路的滑移率和附着利用率的相似输入.根据双电动机外部特性的制动力分配关系,提出了使更多制动能量回馈给电池的策略.结果表明:制动强度为0.3时,能量回收率为65.55%,具有较高的回收效率.

基于神经网络的自动空气制动系统仿真研究

通过分析空气制动试验数据研究10 000 t重载列车空气制动系统的空气传递特性,提取影响空气制动系统关键部件(列车管、副风缸和制动缸)的神经网络特征,建立一种基于神经网络的自动空气制动系统仿真模型。将模型作为制动激励输入纵向动力学模型,并将纵向动力学模型的预测结果与浩吉西峡东站—襄州北站铁路10 000 t重载列车的实际运行结果进行对比验证。研究结果表明:10 000 t重载列车的制动和缓解信号从机车向远端车辆传递,随着传递距离增加,传递速度几乎不变,但传递强度有所衰减;基于神经网络的制动系统仿真模型能预测10 000 t重载列车常用制动减压50 kPa工况的列车管、副风缸和制动缸风压变化,预测精度高达99.9%,在相同计算步长下,计算效率较传统的流体力学仿真模型提升了2 938倍,具有广阔的工程应用前景。