Estimation of the embodied carbon in China's wood products trade using input–output methodology

This study calculates the embodied carbon in imports,exports,net exports,and the processing trade of China's wood product sector between 2001 and 2016 using a non-competitive input-output(I-O)model.The results demonstrate that embodied carbon showed a decreasing trend between 2001 and 2016.Embodied carbon was lowest in wood furniture imports and highest in paper and paperboard imports.The embodied carbon in sawnwood and veneer sheet exports was the lowest and paper and paperboard exports was the highest.The embodied carbon in the processing trade of paper and paperboard was the highest.To reduce the embodied carbon in China's wood products,the government should promote technological transformation and upgrading and encourage the implementation of green technology innovation.

Efficiency and convergence of China’s export trade embodied carbon emissions

Based on the input-output data from 2002 to 2017,this paper combined the three-stage DEA model with the non-competitive I-O model and measured the embodied carbon efficiency of export trade in China’s 26 product sectors,and further investigated its influencing factors and convergence issues.The results of the study showed that:①The embodied carbon efficiency of export trade in China’s overall product sector demonstrated a positive development trend from 2002 to 2017,and this positive trend was more obvious after the implementation of conservation culture construction in 2012.But the differences of embodied carbon emission efficiency level among the product sectors were still significant.②Measured by the K-means clustering analysis method,this study found that agriculture,other service industries,wholesale and retail industries,catering industry,construction industry and manufacturing industry with strong innovation ability were mostly concentrated at high and medium efficiency levels,while industrial sectors with resource dependence and high energy consumption,such as metal smelting and rolling processing industries,non metallic mineral products industry,and coal mining industry,were at a low efficiency level.③All product sectors hadσconvergence,absoluteβconvergence and conditionalβconvergence during 2002-2010 and 2010-2017,and the level of each product sector in 2010-2017 was higher than that in 2002-2010 according to the perspective of convergence speed and degree of convergence.④Technological progress had not fully played a role in suppressing energy consumption and improving the efficiency of embodied carbon efficiency,and it would also widen the gap between the embodied carbon emission efficiency levels of various product sectors.The expansion of trade scale could effectively improve carbon emission efficiency and narrow the gap between sectors.Environmental regulation could effectively promote the improvement of embodied carbon emission efficiency but would widen the level gap between sectors.These findings indicate that China needs to build a sound environmental regulation system for the development of low-carbon trade,continue to reasonably expand the scale of trade,eliminate backward industries with production capacity,vigorously develop low-carbon technologies such as new energy,strengthen the exchange of low carbon technologies and industrial cooperation among sectors,and promote coordinated development among industries.

The driving force effect of trade embodied carbon emissions and embodied SO_(2) emissions transferred in resources-rich areas: A case study of Shanxi province

SDA (Structural Decomposition Analysis) model was applied to analyze the driving factors of embodied carbon and SO_(2) emissions transferred in Shanxi during 2007-2012 based on the input-output model from the perspectives of region and industry.The results showed that the change of embodied carbon emissions and embodied SO_(2) emissions of Shanxi and other regions were hindered by the carbon (sulfur) emissions strength effect,but promoted by the intermediate (final) demand scale effect,the intermediate (final) structure effect and the input-output structure effect.The carbon emissions strength effect had a significant contribution to reducing the embodied carbon emissions transferred from industries in Shanxi to other regions.The intermediate (final) demand scale effect was the driving factor to increase the embodied carbon emissions transferred from industries in Shanxi to other regions.The sulfur emissions strength effect was the only factor that reduced the embodied SO_(2) emissions transferred from Shanxi to other industries.The change of embodied carbon emissions from industries in other regions to Shanxi was hindered by the carbon emissions strength effect,but the input-output structure effect and final demand scale effect both increased the embodied carbon emissions from industries in other regions to Shanxi.The change of the embodied SO_(2) emissions transferred from industries in other regions to Shanxi was inhibited by the sulfur emissions strength effect,but the input-output structure effect,the intermediate demand structure effect and the final demand scale effect were both the driving force effect of increasing the embodied SO_(2) emissions transferred from industries in other regions to Shanxi.The corresponding suggestions and measures were put forward.

Towards net zero carbon buildings:Accounting the building embodied carbon and life cycle-based policy design for Greater Bay Area,China

Carbon mitigation of buildings is critical to promote a net-zero society.The international society has vigorously promoted‘‘Net Zero Carbon Buildings”across the globe,and accounting for building carbon emissions is critical to support this initiative.Embodied carbon,which represents carbon emissions from the entire lifecycle of the buildings,is fundamental for realizing the idea of zero carbon.However,only limited studies have been conducted so far that take into account the city scale.This paper aimed to act as a first try to account for the embodied carbon emissions in buildings in 2020 for the Guangdong-Hong Kong Macao Greater Bay Area in China(GBA).We integrated remote sensing techniques such as night-time light data(NLT)and building material flows analysis to calculate and spatialize the newly generated building material stocks(MS).Based on the MS data,we further applied life cycle assessment(LCA)to assess the embodied carbon in the buildings.The results highlighted that over 163 million tons of embodied carbon in buildings of GBA are expected to be generated,from 497 million tons of newly generated building MS in 2020.The embodied carbon in each life cycle stage is valuable for further lifecyclebased policy designs for:(i)supporting the updating of the green building certification system with consideration of the embodied carbon;(ii)promoting the green building material application and certification;and(iii)reducing the embodied carbon intensity from compact urban planning policy,such as the urban agglomeration policies in GBA.The goal of this paper was to shed a light on reducing carbon emissions from the perspective of the entire lifecycle and promote the development of net zero carbon buildings in China and Asia-Pacific.

Efficient Design of Low Carbon,Low Strength Concrete:Industry Perspective

LSC(low-strength concrete),which is the majority of everyday concrete used,is relatively inefficient in terms of carbon emissions.Research has shown that evaluating the concrete mix design,reducing the amount of cement used,and replacing it with SCMs(supplementary cementitious materials)are more effective than adding superplasticisers and chemical additions.The current research has dealt with the design of LSC by a review method.According to the literature review on the concrete mix and its carbon emissions,113 mix designs with different properties and applications were collected from real industry data,and several data analysis techniques were used to analyse their performance.Examining the data showed that,in general,the use of LSC is inefficient compared to HSC(high-strength concrete).However,several strategies were found that can solve this inefficiency.The results show that the additive cement materials in the binary/ternary combination have a critical effect on reducing the embodied carbon of the composite.Accordingly,it is recommended that the construction industry use the composition of cementitious materials as a key factor in the design of their concretes.The need for more research is felt to identify and critically evaluate other factors that can improve the performance of these concretes.

Tracking embodied carbon flows in the Belt and Road regions

In the past few decades, economic globalization has driven rapid growth of cross-border trade and a new international division of labor, leading to increasing inter-country embodied carbon flows. Multi-region input-output(MRIO) analysis is used to identify embodied carbon flows between major world regions, including seven regions along the Belt and Road(BR), and the spatial distribution of production-and consumption-based carbon intensities. The results show that current embodied carbon flows are virtually all from BR regions to developed countries, with more than 95% of world net embodied carbon exports coming from BR regions. Consumption in the United States and European Union countries induce about 30% of the carbon emissions in most BR regions, indicating that the former bear a high proportion of consumers' responsibility for the carbon emitted in the latter. For this reason, measuring environmental responsibilities from consumption rather than a production-based perspective is more equitable, while developing countries should be given a louder voice in the construction through dialogue and cooperation, in part in the context of the Belt and Road Initiative, of an inclusive global climate governance system.

Embodied carbon emissions in China-US trade

China-US trade holds great significance for the world’s political and economic landscape.Since 2018,the US government has imposed additional tariffs on Chinese exports on the grounds of the US trade deficit with China.However,the transfer of pollutants embodied in trade and the differences in environmental costs between China and the US have not been widely recognized.In this study,we quantify the embodied carbon emissions(the"virtual"emissions associated with trade and consumption)in China-US trade by constructing a carbon dioxide emissions inventory and a multiregional input-output model.The study shows that the US benefits from a trade surplus of environmental costs by importing energy-intensive and pollutionintensive products from China,which increases China’s environmental pollution and abatement costs.In 2017,288 Mt CO2 emissions were associated with products produced in China but finally consumed in the US,and only 46 Mt CO2 were associated with the US products that were consumed in China.From this perspective,China-US trade results in a net transfer of 242 Mt CO2 per year from the US to China,accounting for approximately 5%of the total CO2 emissions in the US.More importantly,for Chinese products exported to the US,the carbon emissions embodied in one unit of economic value amount to 0.92 kg/$(RMB:USD=6.8:1),but for US products exported to China,the carbon emissions embodied in one unit of economic value amount to 0.53 kg/$,which means China will incur environmental costs that are 74%higher than those of the US while enjoying the same economic benefits.This environmental trade deficit has burdened China with higher environmental costs than economic benefits.To address this environmental trade deficit,China should actively promote further industrial upgrading and energy structure adjustment and increase investment in innovation and R&D,thereby increasing the value added per unit of export products and reducing the environmental cost of producing export products.

Carbon Embodied in International Trade of China and Its Emission Responsibility

Carbon emissions embodied in international trade of China during 1997-2007 are accounted by input-output method based on Chinese input-output table and global trade analysis project database.It is revealed that carbon emissions embodied in imports and exports both increased during 1997-2007,but carbon emissions embodied in exports are greater than those embodied in imports,China is a net export nation in embodied carbon.The net exports of embodied carbon account for about 10.82%of the total carbon emissions in 1997,dropped to 7.15%in 2002,increased to 13.13%in 2006,and slightly dropped to 12.64%in 2007.Low-end position of international industry division is an objective factor of being a net exporter of embodied carbon for China,and usage of a large amount of obsolete energy-using equipments wasted much energy and increased carbon emissions embodied in exports. Importers should take more responsibilities for carbon emissions embodied in trade,and China should take a certain responsibility for unreasonable energy dissipations too.

Accounting and Responsibility Allocation on Carbon Emissions Embodied in International Trade

This paper calculated the scale of carbon emissions embodied in the import and export of the world＇s major countries based on input-output principles and international trade data, as well as data on various countries＇carbon emissions in 2005 from domestic consumption and emissions embodied in trade. The results illustrate that, because of international trade, consumers in developed countries should bear the responsibility for a large portion of CO2 emissions. The researchers separated the net transfer balance of embodied emissions in international trade according to four different effects： size effect, exchange rate effect, structural effect, and pure technical effect, all of which favor the sharing of responsibilities between producers and consumers.

建筑全生命周期碳排放——内涵、计算和减量

The life-cycle assessment method,which originates from general products and services,has gradually come to be applied to investigations of the life-cycle carbon emissions(LCCE)of buildings.A literature review was conducted to clarify LCCE implications,calculations,and reductions in the context of buildings.A total of 826 global building carbon emission calculation cases were obtained from 161 studies based on the framework of the building life-cycle stage division stipulated by ISO 21930 and the basic principles of the emission factor(EF)approach.The carbon emission calculation methods and results are discussed herein,based on the modules of production,construction,use,end-of-life,and supplementary benefits.According to the hotspot distribution of a building’s carbon emissions,carbon reduction strategies are classified into six groups for technical content and benefits analysis,including reducing the activity data pertaining to building materials and energy,reducing the carbon EFs of the building materials and energy,and exploiting the advantages of supplementary benefits.The research gaps and challenges in current building LCCE studies are summarized in terms of research goals and ideas,calculation methods,basic parameters,and carbon reduction strategies;development suggestions are also proposed.

Research on carbon emissions embodied in China-Russia trade under the background of the Belt and Road

Based on the latest China-Russia input-output data sets over the period from 2007 to 2015,this study quantified the flow of embodied carbon emissions in China-Russia trade using the emission embodied in bilateral trade(EEBT)approach.In addition,the structural decomposition analysis(SDA)was employed to identify the potential driving factors that affect embodied carbon in imports and exports.The results showed as follow.1)China was a net exporter of carbon emissions in bilateral trade between China and Russia during 2007–2015.Despite that the bilateral trade scale had expanded considerably,the net export volume of CO_(2)from China to Russia decreased from 13.21 Mt in 2007 to 4.45 Mt in 2015.2)From the perspective of different sectors,the metal manufacturing and the chemical sectors of China and Russia were the main sources of CO_(2)emissions.3)In terms of driving factors,it was found that the carbon emission coefficient was the main reason for contributing to embodied emission reduction.Moreover,the contribution rate of carbon emission coefficient to reduce the carbon emissions in imports reached to 95.26%,as well as 108.22%in exports.The bilateral trade scale was the main driver for the increase in embodied carbon emissions,and the contribution rate to embodied carbon emissions in imports and exports were 14.80%and 65.17%,respectively.4)This study argued that China and Russia should further optimize the energy structure and improve the energy efficiency and intermediate technology in the future.

Trade Benefits and Environmental Costs of GVCS: A Case Study of the BRICS

As the international trading system has developed with the division of Global value Chains (GVCS), the export trade of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) has grown rapidly. The resulting growth of carbon emissions has drawn wide attention from the international community, necessitating the comparison of the trade benefits and environmental costs of the BRICS participation in GVCS. Based on the Eora database, this paper constructs a decomposition framework for the calculation of export value-added and embodied carbon, based on a multi-region input-output (MRIO) model. The trade benefits and environmental costs paid by the BRICS’ total exports from 1990 to 2015 were measured and the imbalance was analyzed, along with the causes. The results show that the main value-added and carbon embodied in the BRICS’ exports originate from their own countries, and the domestic value-added content of the BRICS’ exports decreased while the foreign value-added content increased.

The Net Flow of Carbon Emissions Embodied in Trade of China

Based on the most current GTAP8 database, we analyzed flow, structure and change in trade- embodied carbon emissions between China and the developed world and the developing world from 2004 to 2007 using input-output model. We found that China was always a net embodied emissions exporting country over this period. Based on the LMDI decomposition method, we found that factors influencing net embodied emissions exported from China to developed countries and developing countries differ. Trade surpluses and differences in emissions factors were vital in determining net embodied emissions exported from China to the developed world. Differences in export structures and emissions factors were key factors influencing net emissions between China and developing countries. These were closely related to respective divisions amongst developed countries, China and other developing countries in the global industrial chain. From 2004 to 2007, the export structure of China was transformed to high-end manufacturing with domestic producing technology gradually approaching the level of developed countries. With further technological improvement, industrial upgrades and export structure optimization in China, the net export of embodied carbon emissions will decrease and the driving forces of trade for China＇s domestic carbon emissions will decline.

Embodied energy consumption and carbon emissions evaluation for urban industrial structure optimization

Cities are the main material processors asso- ciated with industrialization. The development of urban production based on fossil fuels is the major contributor to the rise of greenhouse gas density, and to global warming. The concept of urban industrial structure optimization is considered to be a solution to urban sustainable develop- ment and global climate issues. Enforcing energy con- servation and reducing carbon emissions are playing key roles in addressing these issues. As such, quantitative accounting and the evaluation of energy consumption and corresponding carbon emissions, which are by-products of urban production, are critical, in order to discover potential opportunities to save energy and to reduce emissions. Conventional evaluation indicators, such as ＂energy consumption per unit output value＂ and ＂emissions per unit output value＂, are concerned with immediate consumptions and emissions; while the indirect consump- tions and emissions that occur throughout the supply chain are ignored. This does not support the optimization of the overall urban industrial system. To present a systematic evaluation framework for cities, this study constructs new evaluation indicators, based on the concepts of ＂embodied energy＂ and ＂embodied carbon emissions＂, which take both the immediate and indirect effects of energy consumption and emissions into account. Taking Beijing as a case, conventional evaluation indicators are compared with the newly constructed ones. Results show that the energy consumption and emissions of urban industries are represented better by the new indicators than by conventional indicators, and provide useful information for urban industrial structure optimization.

Which sectors should be covered by the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism?

The European Union(EU)is developing the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism(CBAM)to address carbon leakage in international trade.However,the EU has paid inadequate attention to input-output linkages,specifically those in the steel,aluminum,and fertiliser industries.This study aims to identify priority sectors eligible for initial regulation within the emissions-intensive trade-exposed(EITE)industries based on input-output linkages and compare its impacts with the current CBAM sector coverage.This study constructs a Global Production Network(GPN)and Carbon Flow Network(CFN)to present the input trade and embodied carbon flows for the EITE industries.This study highlights the role of the EITE industries as influential nodes in the production network and how the EITE industries in the EU contribute to carbon emissions.To improve the economy and political acceptability,CABM should cover four priority sectors with low economic impacts but a crucial role in reducing emissions,such as plastics,phosphorus fertiliser,aluminum,and copper industry.

China’s intra-and inter-national carbon emission transfers by province:A nested network perspective

Since China carries an increasingly significant responsibility in carbon emission reduction,a systematic assessment from the multi-scale and multi-regional perspective is essential to examine the region-specific carbon emissions and different kinds of carbon transfer patterns.By identifying carbon emission flows among 31 domestic provincial administrative regions and 184 foreign countries/economies,this work examines the domestic and foreign carbon emission flows of Chinese provinces/municipalities based on the intra-and inter-national relations.Overall,the provinces and municipalities in China are divided into 4 patterns according to carbon emission flows,among which inland provinces mainly engage in domestic carbon emission transfers,western regions generally receive carbon emissions with main carbon outflows in northeastern and central provinces,and coastal regions play an essential role in balancing carbon emission surpluses and deficits between domestic and foreign regions.For different sub-regions in China,recognizing carbon emission transfer relations contributes to the synergetic and sustainable regional development from a tele-connected perspective.With the nested network analysis,the multi-scale and multiregional assessments focusing upon China’s provinces and municipalities extend the existing research to both national and global scales,providing a solid foundation for sustainable regional development in China.

Research on Measurement of China’s Inter-Provincial Trade,International Trade and Low-Carbon Trade Competitiveness

In this paper,Embodied carbon emission competitiveness in international trade and inter-provincial trade is measured and comparative analysis is conducted.Specifi cally the non-competitive input-output model and low-carbon trade competitiveness index are constructed to study the embodied carbon emission competitiveness of 31 Chinese provinces in international trade and inter-provincial trade from the perspectives of the whole,three industries and product sectors.We find that Shanghai is the most competitive in low-carbon trade,while Qinghai is the least;carbon leakage in international trade is severe;the performance of different product sectors differ widely in embodied carbon emission competitiveness in international trade and inter-provincial trade;the primary and secondary industries are competitive in low-carbon inter-provincial trade and the tertiary industry is competitive in low-carbon international trade.The innovations of this paper is as follows:methodology in low-carbon trade competitiveness index is innovated;macro,meso and micro perspectives are taken;factors in international trade and inter-provincial trade are combined in content.In the end,development of low-carbon trade is promoted and references for policy are provided for a new round of trade competition.