From Regional to Intercontinental Trade： The Successive European Trade Empires From the 16th to the 18thCentury in Asia

For a very long time, the areas available for continuous long-distance trade were limited to territories of Braudel＇s Mediterrande （1949）. Whatever the commercial organizations （merchants in the Roman or the Fatimid Empires, the Hanseatic League, the Florentine Companies） were, their trade was not able to directly handle branches more than a month＇s sailing from their main base （in the best conditions）. During the three centuries after Vasco de Gama had reached India, European trading areas dramatically expanded to the shores of Asia, and a long period of harsh competition set the East India Companies of the main European powers of the time against one another. What were the elements that allowed these companies to maintain transactions over such vast areas？ And why were some of these companies far more successful than the others？ A large set of secondary sources focusing on one company or on a particular aspect of trade （Chauduri, 1978; Israel, 1989; Subrahmanyan, 1993; Ames, 1996） exist, however, none of them treat their successive successes and failures. The aim of this paper is to briefly review these sources, to extract information from them and to compare the economic adaptations and innovations that allowed these companies to be the greatest of their time.

印度公司上层行政立法及司法组织结构浅议

为垄断香料贸易,葡萄牙政府创设以果阿副王廷为中心的印度公司,通过副王廷的各种机构建制,对管理包括防务和交易在内的东方事务,进行司法和行政控制。

主观权利概念之理论检讨——以胎儿的民事权利能力问题为中心

我国学者对民法典第16条规定的"胎儿视为具有民事权利能力"已有多种解读,但仍有可改进之处。学者在分析这一问题时无法摆脱权利概念的影响,均不自觉地遵循由权利能力到权利的形式逻辑,导致胎儿是否具有权利能力成为理论焦点。然而,权利概念在这种利益主体未确定存在的场合欠缺解释力,依该理论解释胎儿利益保护问题,反而会破坏其体系上的稳定性、逻辑上的周延性。不妨坦然接受权利概念之不足,于其力有未逮之处,以属于客观法范畴的约束状态概念予以弥补,形成主观权利与客观法、权利与约束状态两套概念体系并驾齐驱之势。在利益主体确定存在的场合,以权利概念叙述之;而对于利益主体缺位的情形,则以约束状态概念指称之。就约束状态而言,虽无利益主体但其利益已处于法律保护之下,利益主体出现后始转为权利。在约束状态中,莫问是否有权利能力、是否为权利主体、是何种法律关系。除了出生前利益保护问题之外,死者利益保护、法人成立前利益保护等问题都有适用约束状态概念的余地。