Ethnopharmacological Assessment of Medicinal Plants Used in the Management of Livestock Ailments by Resource-Limited Farmers in the Eastern Cape Province

Medicinal plants play a major role in meeting people’s medical and health needs, especially in developing countries. However, due to a lack of access to modern veterinary facilities, poor visibility of animal health personnel, and high prices of orthodox medicines, most farmers rely on traditional healers and the administration of medicinal plants to treat livestock ailments. The present study was conducted to document Ethnopharmacological knowledge of medicinal plants used to manage livestock ailments in three rural communities of the Eastern Cape. This study was carried out in three rural communities between July 2009 and February 2010. Data were collected by administering pre-tested semi-structured questionnaires and participative field observations. For the interviews, a sample of 48 knowledgeable respondents was purposively selected. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, determination of information consensus factor, and fidelity level. A total of 12 medicinal plants belonging to 9 families were used by local people to cure different ailments. A high number of medicinal plants were claimed by males compared to females. Roots and barks were the major plant parts used, and the least were leaves (27.3%). Six plants were used to treat diarrhea and fertility, five plants to treat wounds, and two plants to treat scabs. This study has shown that Eastern Cape flora is rich with various plants which could be used to replace orthodox drugs. Further studies are needed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations, biological activities, and toxicities and characterize the plant’s chemical compounds.

An ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used in the traditional treatment of human infertility in eastern Algeria

Objective:To summarize medicinal plants used in the treatment of couple fertility disorders.Methods:An ethnopharmacological survey was conducted with 30 traditional healers from some localities of Skikda region in eastern Algeria.A standard questionnaire was used in the interview which focused mainly:the treated fertility disorders,the used medicinal plants species,parts used,and preparation methods.The relative frequency of citation and percentages of infertility troubles were calculated and analyzed.Results:The most important treated disorders in men were dysfunction of libido(44.22%),low sperm concentration and motility(25.33%),low semen volume(17.67%)and prostate disorders(5.66%).Women were treated mainly for menstruation disorders(35.32%),breast problems(29.53%)and sexual asthenia(25.82%).The survey identified 28 plant species belonging to 15 families,used by different ethnic groups,particularly women(58.00%),to address different fertility disorders.Three plant families were largely used viz Lamiaceae,Asteraceae,and Apiaceae.In term of relative frequency citation,ten dominated plant species were:Zingiber officinalis L.(0.96),Nigella sativa L.(0.83),Lepidium sativum L.(0.80),Capsicum annuum L.(0.60),Cuminum cyminum L.(0.56),Origanum vulgare L.(0.55),Allium sativum L.(0.50),Petroselinum sativum L.(0.43),Salvia officinalis L.(0.42),and Foeniculum vulgare L.(0.40).A number of investigated plants were scientifically confirmed by phytochemical and pharmacological studies to have one or more significant effects on couple fertility.However,much controversy was found in literature concerning the efficacy of some cited plants.Conclusions:The study highlights the important use of medicinal plants in management of couple infertility in eastern Algeria.More experimental studies are recommended to confirm or to refute these traditional uses and to ascertain the safety of these medicinal plants to consumers.

The Genus Solanum:An Ethnopharmacological,Phytochemical and Biological Properties Review

Over the past 30 years,the genus Solanum has received considerable attention in chemical and biological studies.Solanum is the largest genus in the family Solanaceae,comprising of about 2000 species distributed in the subtropical and tropical regions of Africa,Australia,and parts of Asia,e.g.,China,India and Japan.Many of them are economically signifcant species.Previous phytochemical investigations on Solanum species led to the identifcation of steroidal saponins,steroidal alkaloids,terpenes,favonoids,lignans,sterols,phenolic comopunds,coumarins,amongst other compounds.Many species belonging to this genus present huge range of pharmacological activities such as cytotoxicity to diferent tumors as breast cancer(4T1 and EMT),colorectal cancer(HCT116,HT29,and SW480),and prostate cancer(DU145)cell lines.The biological activities have been attributed to a number of steroidal saponins,steroidal alkaloids and phenols.This review features 65 phytochemically studied species of Solanum between 1990 and 2018,fetched from SciFinder,Pubmed,ScienceDirect,Wikipedia and Baidu,using“Solanum”and the species’names as search terms(“all felds”).

Ethnopharmacological Survey of Plants Used for the Treatment of Stomach,Diabetes,and Ophthalmic Diseases in Sudhan Gali,Kashmir,Pakistan

The present paper represents the ethnopharmacological survey of Sudhan Gali,Kashmir,Pakistan.The study revealed that 12 plant species belonging to 11 families were used for the treatment of stomach,diabetes and ophthalmic diseases by the local people in Sudhan Gali.Achillea millefolium,Aconitum heterophyllum,Berberis lycium,Polygonum amplexicaule,Mentha longifolia,Paeonia emodi,Plantago lanceolata were locally used for stomach related problems treatment;Berberis lycium,Skimmia lareola,Solanum dulcamara for diabetes and Geranium wallichianum,Artemisia vulgaris,Solanum dulcamara,and Corydalis crassifolia used for the treatment of ophthalmic diseases.Two species Berberis lycium and Solanum dulcamara have multipurpose value.Former is used to treat stomach as well as diabetes while latter is used to treat not only to diabetes but also ophthalmic diseases.According to IUCN categories,out of these 12 plant species collected and marketed,Polygonum amplexicaule and Paeonia emodi are endangered,Aconitum heterophyllum;Berberis lycium species are vulnerable while Plantago lanceolata and Skimmia lareola species are rare.The availability of these medicinal plants has decreased during the past 20 years and these are facing a drastic biotic pressure due to their extensive usage and non-scientific methods of collection.It is quite evident that these valuable native medicinal plants species are going to decline in number and ultimately will become extinct if no timely proper conservation strategies are adopted.

Phytochemical Profile of Wollemia nobilis Half-Matured Female Cones and Their Potential Ethnopharmacological and Nutraceutical Activities

In this work, the half-matured female cones of the rare species, Wollemia nobilis, were studied for their phytochemical profile for the first time. Fourteen compounds were isolated and identified by means of column chromatography, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance （NMR） spectroscopy and Mass Spectrometry （MS）. In particular, these compounds were acetyl-isocupressic acid （1）, methyl-（E）-communate （2）, sandaracopimaric acid （3）, wollemol （4）, 7″-O-methyl-agathisflavone （5）, 7,4″-di-O-methyl-agathisflavone （6）, shikimic acid （7）, quinic acid （8）, glucose （9）, sucrose （10）, raffinose （11）, D-lactic acid （12）, succinic acid （13） and alanine （14）. The chemotaxonomic implications of their presence were discussed and a preliminary phytochemical comparison between these cones and the male ones was also performed. This evidenced several similarities but also some differences that were widely treated about. Moreover, a preliminary nutraceutical evaluation of these cones, based on phytochemistry, was carried out. Actually, this showed a good nutraceutical potentiality of the half-matured cones but also some potential critical state mainly due to the occurrence of acetyl-isocupressic acid （1）, which is quite known to have some adverse pharmacological effects. For this reason, more in-depth nutraceutical studies would be necessary to exactly determine the ethnopharmacological and nutraceutical value of these cones.

Advances in ethnopharmacology,phytochemistry and pharmacology of Erigerontis Herba and its Chinese medicine prescriptions

Erigerontis Herba(EH),the dried whole plant of Erigeron breviscapus,is well-known for circulating blood,activating meridians to alleviate pain,expelling wind,and clearing away cold.It has been extensively utilized in southern China for the treatment of stroke hemiplegia,chest stuffiness and pains,rheumatic arthralgia,headache,and toothache.This review focuses on the botany,ethnopharmacology,phytochemistry,pharmacology and toxicity of EH and its related prescriptions to offer new insights for prospective research of EH.Relevant information about EH was retrieved from ancient records and books,PubMed,China National Knowledge Infrastructure,Chinese Pharmacopoeia,Web of Science,Doctoral and Master’s Theses,and various electronic databases.EH is a member of Compositae family and is mainly grown in southern China.Traditional Chinese medicine records that EH has the effects of circulating blood and removing blood stasis,expelling wind,and removing cold,as well as relieving rigidity of muscle and relieving pain.By now,nearly 200 ingredients have been characterized from EH,including flavonoids,caffeoyls,aromatic acids,coumarins,pentacyclic terpenoids,volatile oil and other compounds.EH extracts,EH related prescriptions(Dengzhan Xixin injection,Dengzhan Shengmai capsules,etc.)or compounds(scutellarin,scutellarein,etc.)possessed obvious therapeutic effects of ischemic stroke,cerebral hemorrhage,myocardial infarction,Alzheimer’s disease,diabetes and its complications,gastric cancer,bone,and joint degenerative diseases.Scutellarin,the major active compound of EH,has been used as a quality marker.And no obvious toxicity of EH has been reported.According to its traditional applications,ethnopharmacology,phytochemistry,pharmacology,and toxicity,EH was applied as a valuable herb for clinical application in food and medicine fields.While several compounds have been shown to possess diverse biological activities,the underlying mechanisms of their actions remain elusive.To fully exploit the medicinal potential of EH,further studies on understanding the effective material basis and mechanisms are warranted.

A review of selected parasitic plants in Nigeria:converting harms to benefits

Parasitic plants are challenging to agricultural crops and forestry development,which are sources of major revenues in several countries,including Nigeria.Nevertheless,parasitic plants are important to human society as they have an abundance of bioactive compounds with pharmacological relevance.Thus,it becomes expedient to know the benefits of these plants and potential means of management.This review discusses four selected parasitic plants in Nigeria,namely Viscum album,Striga hermonthica,Tapinanthus bangwensis and Cuscuta campestris.Relevant information about their pharmacological relevance and biocontrol was obtained from credible databases,including the National Library of Medicine,SCOPUS,and Google Scholar.The review showed that all four plants have been extensively studied for their antioxidant and antitumor properties.Also,antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities are common pharmacological values among parasitic plants.These are largely due to the presence of abundant beneficial classes of phytocompounds.Furthermore,there is an increasing number of biocontrol studies on the use of microorganisms,such as Phaeobotryosphaeria visci,Sphaeropsis visci,Pandoraea pulminicol,Colletotrichum gloeosporioides,and Fusarium oxysporum in controlling and managing these seemingly disastrous plants.It is hoped that this review will spur further studies into the conservation and proper management of parasitic plants using strategically developed biocontrol.

Ethnopharmacological Potentials of Warburgia ugandensis on Antimicrobial Activities

Warburgia ugandensis(W.ugandensis)is known by various names,including the East African greenheart,pepper bark tree,and Ugandan greenheart,and has a rich history of extensive use in the treatment of a host of human diseases in many African countries.This review is based on the botany and ethnopharmacological potentials of W.ugandensis for the treatment of pneumonia,asthma,malaria,candidiasis,skin infections,human immunodeficiency virus opportunistic infections,diarrhea,and measles given the common use in the management of these diseases.Extracts from W.ugandensis have strong antimicrobial activities against a broad spectrum of pathogens mainly because of the presence of abundant terpenoids,drimane,and coloratane type sesquditerpenoids amongst which are ugandensial,warburganal,mukaadial,and other secondary metabolites,such as tannins,flavonoids,saponins,steroids,and mannitol.This group of compounds gives the plant a high therapeutic value.Based on the review,there is a need for identification and isolation of the highly therapeutic phytochemical constituents and a drive for more preclinical and clinical trials to validate the safety and efficacy of the extracts.This gives basis for the potential development of new therapeutic drugs from the plant.

Saposhnikovia divaricata——An Ethnopharmacological,Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review

Saposhnikovia divaricata(Turcz.)Schischk.,a perennial herb belonging to the family Umbelliferae,is widely distributed in Northeast Asia.Its dried root(Radix Saposhnikoviae)is used as a Chinese herbal medicine for the treatment of immune system,nervous system,and respiratory diseases.Phytochemical and pharmacological studies have shown that the main constituents of S.divaricata are chromones,coumarins,acid esters,and polyacetylenes,and these compounds exhibited significant anti-inflammatory,analgesic,antioxidant,antiproliferative,antitumor,and immunoregulatory activities.The purpose of this review is to provide comprehensive information on the botanical characterization and distribution,traditional use and ethnopharmacology,phytochemistry,and pharmacology of S.divaricata for further study concerning its mechanism of action and development of better therapeutic agents and health products from S.divaricata.

Ethnopharmacological Survey of Medicinal Plants in Baotou,Inner Mongolia,China

Objective To document the knowledge and the use of indigenous medicinal plants by traditional healers in Baotou,Inner Mongolia,China.Methods Data were collected from 112 randomly-selected interviewees using semistructured interviews in wild herbal plant collected from 2007 to 2010.The data from the interviewees were analyzed with two quantitative tools.With the informant consensus factor,the information homology was evaluated and with the fidelity level the most important species from the categories were found.Results One hundred and fifty-two species belonging to 112 genera in 48 families with medicinal values were recorded.The reported medicinal plants species were used to treat 63 kinds of diseases.And the medicinal plants in this district possessed significant potentials for their pharmacological activities in the context of ethnopharmacological knowledge,especially in the treatments of gastrointestinal,dermatological,and cardiovascular diseases.Conclusion In this work,152 medicinal plants with their ethnopharmacological information are reported.This study demonstrates that many species play an important role in healing practices among inhabitants from Baotou.More ethnopharmacological information of Mongolian medicinal plants should be gathered and documented in further studies,which is a fundamental step toward developing efficacious natural drugs for various diseases.

An ethnopharmacological investigation of medicinal Salvia plants (Lamiaceae) in China

In China,over 40 species of the genus Salvia have been used as medicinal plants for various diseases,some for thousands of years.Recently,research has focused on the biological activities of Salvia medicinal plants used in traditional chinese medicine(TCM).However,to date a scientific survey of the genus Salvia in China has not been carried out.In this paper,we report the results of 10 field surveys of Salvia medicinal plants collected in 17 provinces including detailed information on their local names,growing environment,distribution and therapeutic effects.We also summarize the results of research on the materia medica,phytochemistry and pharmacology of some of the important Salvia medicinal plants.Our study reveals that 35 Salvia plants have been used in TCM in different regions of China,including 20 species used as Danshen to treat heart diseases,and 15 species used to treat a range of other conditions including gynecological diseases,muscular or skeletal problems,hepatitis,urological diseases,and mouth and eye conditions.It is clear that some species of Salvia L.possess significant pharmacological activity in the context of ethnopharmacological knowledge,especially in the treatment of heart disease.Further studies of the phytochemistry and pharmacology of Salvia species will no doubt improve their medical utilization and contribute to the development of new natural drugs.

Ethnopharmacological evaluation and antioxidant activity of some important herbs used in traditional medicines

OBJECTIVE: To document the indigenous knowledge and evaluate the antioxidant activity of medicinal herbs used for treatment of various diseases.METHODS: The ethnomedicinal data were collected through semi-structured interviews of local informants along with collection of herbarium specimens. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by using 1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical scavenging assay.RESULTS: A total of 12 important medicinal herbs were evaluated for ethnomedicinal uses and antioxidant activity. Medicinal plant diversity showed that Solanaceae was the dominating family(3 spp.),followed by Asteraceae and Lamiaceae(both 2spp.). Leaves(31%) were most frequently used in preparation of traditional medicines, and the most recommended mode of preparation was powder(28%). The antioxidant results revealed that thehighest activity was found in Atropa acuminata and Crocus sativus.CONCLUSION: The results of this study proved that A. accuminata and C. sativus can be the excellent sources of antioxidant compounds. A sustainable use and conservation of the valuable natural resource greatly promote the development of functional food additives and cosmetics.

The“Top 50 High Impact Researches of Traditional Medicine”published in 2021

In recent years,significant progress has been achieved in both basic and clinical research within the field of traditional medicine,garnering increasing attention worldwide.To further promote a high-quality and international development of traditional medicine,the editorial board of Acupuncture and Herbal Medicine provided a collection of the“Top 50 High-impact Researches of Traditional Medicine”published in 2021 through objective indicators and a strict selection process.The findings of the selected articles have a significant academic influence and possess considerable academic value both nationally and internationally.The selected articles cover a wide range of topics,including clinical research,acupuncture,pharmacology,chemistry,biosynthesis,medicinal plant resources,and new formulation and drug delivery system research on traditional medicine.Therefore,this article outlines the selection process of the top 50 high-impact research articles,analyzes their research characteristics,and provides a brief summary of their new findings and perspectives in the field of traditional medicine.

Ethnobotanical and traditional uses, phytochemical constituents and biological activities of Eryngium species growing in Iran

Objective: Eryngium with the 274 accepted species, is the largest genus of Apiaceae family which are distributed all over the world and have been used in traditional remedies to manage various ailments in different nations. Ten species of Eryngium have been identified in Iran including E. caeruleum M.B.(syn: E. caucasicum Trautv.), E. creticum Lam., E. bungei Boiss., E. billardieri F. Delaroche.(syn: E. kotschyi Boiss.), E. glomeratum Lam.(syn: E. parviflorum Sm.), E. bornumulleri Nab., E. pyramidale Boiss.& Husson., E. noeanum Boiss., E. wanaturi Woron.(syn: E. woronowii Bordz.), and E. thyrsoideum Boiss. The aim of the present research is to review pharmacological activity, and phytochemical constituents as well as ethnobotany and traditional uses of Iranian species of Eryngium. Materials and methods: Electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct (ISI Web of Knowledge) and Embase library were comprehensively searched for research on Eryngium. The search period was from 1966 to October 2018. The related articles were selected according to the inclusion and exclusion criterias in our study. Results: A total of 57 papers were enrolled in analyses. The findings showed that Iranian species of Eryngium, had a noticeable diverse of traditional medicinal uses and also broad range of pharmacological activities as well as various phytochemical compounds. Some remarkable biological and pharmacological activities of these species have been demonstrated in present scientific studies, including antimicrobial, cytotoxic and anticancer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antinociceptive activities as well as antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-snake and anti-scorpion venom effects. Conclusion: Iranian Eryngium species have enormous potential for prospective preparation of herbal medicinal products and are good candidates for discovering new drugs.

Pharmacological properties of Datura stramonium L. as a potential medicinal tree:An overview

India has a great wealth of various naturally occurring plant drugs which have great potential pharmacological activities.Datura stramonium(D.stramonium is one of the widely well known folklore medicinal herbs.The troublesome weed,D.stramonium is a plant with both poisonous and medicinal preperties and has been proven to have great pharmacological potential with a great utility real usage in folklore medicine.D.stromonium has been scientifically proven to contain alkaloids,tannins,carbohydrates and proteins.This plant has contributed various pharmacological actions in the scientific field of Indian systems of medicines like analgesic and antiasthmatic activities.The present paper presents an exclusive review work on the ethnomedical,phytochemical,pharmacological activities of this plant.

Traditional usage,phytochemistry and pharmacology of Croton sylvaticus Hochst.ex C.Krauss

Croton sylvaticus(C. sylvaticus) is widely used as herbal medicine by the indigenous people of tropical Africa. The potential of C. sylvaticus as herbal medicine,the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of its parts used as herbal medicines are reviewed. The extensive literature survey revealed that C. sylvaticus is traditionally used to treat or manage at least 24 human and animal diseases and ailments. The species is used as herbal medicine for diseases and ailments such as abdominal pains,boils,fever,inflammation,malaria,rheumatism,swellings and tuberculosis and as ethnoveterinary medicine. Multiple classes of phytochemicals such as alkaloids,anthraquinones,essential oils,flavonoids,lignan,phenolics,sterols,tannins and terpenoids have been isolated from the species. Scientific studies on C. sylvaticus indicate that it has a wide range of pharmacological activities which include antibacterial,antifungal,anti-inflammatory,antioxidant,larvicidal and effects on the central nervous system. Although studies have confirmed that C. sylvaticus has a wide range of bioactives,further research on the exact bioactive molecules and mechanisms of action are required.

Ethnobotany and phytopharmacology of Pinus roxburghii Sargent:a plant review

Traditional medicine is a blend of information gathered over generations from various communities and cultures. Pinus roxburghii Sargent （Pinaceae） commonly known as ＂chir pine＂ is widely used in traditional and folkloric systems of medicine. The all parts of the plant are believed to possess medicinal qualities in Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine. In these traditional systems of medicine, the plant is used to heal many diseases, including afflictions of the eyes, ears, throat, blood, and skin. The plant parts are rich in various bioactive compounds such as a-pinene, abietic acid, quercetin and xanthone. Resin acids and flavanoid form a major portion of these bioactive compounds. This review presents examples of traditional medicinal uses for P. roxburghii, and subsequently explores the current understanding of the chemical, pharmacological, and biochemical properties of the extracts and the main active constituents found in each tissue of the plant. Clinical trial information is also included where available. Careful evaluation of these data may be helpful for scientists and researchers to discover and evaluate the specific chemical entities responsible for the traditional medicinal uses of P. roxburghii.

Euclea undulata Thunb.:Review of its botany,ethnomedicinal uses,phytochemistry and biological activities

Euclea undulata(E. undulata) is traditionally used for the treatment of body pains, chest complaints, cough, diabetes, diarrhoea, headaches, heart diseases and toothaches in southern Africa. This study was aimed at reviewing the botany, ethnopharmacology and biological activities of E. undulata in southern Africa. Results presented in this study are based on review of literature using search engines such as Science Direct, Springerlink,Scopus, Pub Med, Web of Science, Bio Med Central and Google Scholar. Herbal medicine is prepared from the decoctions of the roots, bark and leaves, and extracts of these plant parts have demonstrated anticholinesterase, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antimycobacterial, antiplasmodial, antioxidant and hypoglycaemic activities. Multiple classes of phytochemical compounds such alkaloids, diterpenes, fatty acids, flavonoids, glycosides, naphthoquinones, phenolics, phytosterols, reducing sugars, saponins and tannins have been isolated from the species. E. undulata has a lot of potential as herbal medicine in tropical Africa, and advanced research is required aimed at correlating its medicinal uses with the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties.

Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.: A vegetable with diverse pharmacological properties

Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.is a climber of the Cucurbitaceae family mainly found in tropical Asia.The fruit is widely consumed as a vegetable and different parts of this plant are used in the traditional medicine to treat various types of human ailments.In this review,we critically analyzed and presented the scientific studies on T.dioica available in three electronic databases viz.PubMed,Web of Science and Google Scholar.Our aim was to find the scientific basis of the traditional use to understand the plant’s potential in therapy.Studies have found promising antihyperglycemic,antihyperlipidemic,antitumor,cytotoxic,arsenic poisoning ameliorative,anti-inflammatory,antidiarrheal,and varieties of pharmacological activities of T.dioica.Different types of bioactive compounds have been identified and isolated from T.dioica including peptides namely trichosanthin and lectin;a number of triterpenes like cucurbitacin B,euphol,α-amyrin,-amyrin,lupeol,taraxerol,betulin,and karounidiol;sterols,steroidal saponin,tannin,flavonoids etc.T.dioica contains a number of well-known bioactive phytochemicals and the plant has shown an array of pharmacological activities in vivo.This review will expand our understanding of the therapeutic potential of T.dioica and their phytochemical basis which may help in further research on this species.

Acacia karroo Hayne:Ethnomedicinal uses,phytochemistry and pharmacology of an important medicinal plant in southern Africa

Acacia karroo(A.karroo) has been used as herbal medicine by the indigenous people of southern Africa for several centuries.The potential of.4.karroo as herbal medicine,its associated phytochemistry and biological activities are reviewed.The extensive literature survey revealed that A.karroo is traditionally used to treat or manage 32 and five human and animal diseases and ailmenls.respectively.The species is used as herbal medicine for diseases and ailments such as colds,diarrhoea,dysentery,flu.malaria,sexually transmitted infections(STis),wounds,and also as colic and ethnovetcrinary medicine.Multiple classes of phytochemicals such as flavonoids.phenols,phytosterols,proanthocyanidin.tannin,terpenes as well as several minerals have been identified from leaves and roots of A.karroo.Scientific studies on A.karroo indicate that it has a wide range of pharmacological activities which include antibacterial,antifungal,antigonococcal.antihelmintic,antilisterial,antimalarial,antimycobacterial,antioxidant.HIV-1 reverse transcriptase,anti-inflammatory and analgesic.Acacia karroo has a lot of potential as a possible source of pharmaceutical products for the treatment of a wide range of both human and animal diseases and ailments.Future research should focus on the mechanisms of action of the different plant parts used as herbal medicines.isolated compounds,their efficacy,toxicity and clinical relevance.