Quantitative Analysis of Nursing Observation Employing a Portable Eye-Tracker

Background: Observation is an important skill for making appropriate nursing decisions and engaging in good practice. However, experts’ observation behavior and cognitive processes cannot be easily verbalized or documented in an objective and accurate manner. Quantitative analysis of the observation behavior of nurses with rich clinical experience will yield effective educational data for fostering and improving nursing students’ observation skills. Objectives: To improve nursing assessment education, the differences in the information gathering processes between clinical nurses and nursing students were analyzed by using a portable eye-tracker. Design: An experimental study. Settings: The experiment was performed at a university in Japan. Participants: The participants were 11 clinical nurses with at least 5 years of clinical experience for postoperative patients, and 10 fourth-year nursing students. Methods: In a mock hospital room, wherein we recreated a situation where a patient in postoperative day 1 was confined to a bed, participants wore an eye-tracking camera and engaged in nursing observation to make an early postoperative ambulation assessment of the patient. Participants’ gaze points and gaze fixation durations were extracted from the gaze measurement data and compared. Results: Clinical nurses had shorter observation times and gaze durations than did nursing students, and focused more on the patient chart, intravenous drip, and indwelling drain. Students gazed for longest at the measuring devices for vital signs. Conclusions: We quantitatively analyzed differences in nursing observation according to clinical experience. Although no significant difference was found in gaze points, nursing students had a greater tendency to focus on information that was numerically displayed. Nurses with clinical experience conducted observations by gazing at information that they needed to focus on the most according to the patients’ postoperative course.

Psychophysiological Effects of Zembrin®Using Quantitative EEG Source Density in Combination with Eye-Tracking in 60 Healthy Subjects. A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, 3-Armed Study with Parallel Design

The endemic South African succulent plant Sceletium tortuosum (L.) N.E. Br., family Mesembryathemaceae, is known as kanna in Nama, kougoed in Afrikaans, and sceletium in English. The plant has been used as a tea and as a masticatory for millennia by indigenous San hunter-gatherers and Nama pastoralists for endurance and well-being. It has been reported that the plant “gives strength to their limbs, and takes away pain, and makes their memory strong”. The current investigation aimed at the psychophysiological characterization of 25.0 and 50.0 mg of a special extract marketed as Zembrin® in comparison to placebo using a new methodology called “EnkephaloVision”. This combination of EEG Neurocode-Tracking and Eye-Tracking allows for concomitant analysis of time epochs of only 364 ms duration. Spectral EEG analysis during cognitive and emotional challenges revealed statistically significant increases of delta (p < 0.01 during arithmetic calculation and watching a boring animal video) and theta spectral power (p < 0.10 during these same challenges) in the presence of Zembrin® within the frontal brain. It is these same increases of slow waves in the frontal brain that are described in the literature during performance of mental tests. This indicates a positive effect of Zembrin® on the electrical activity of the brain during cognitive processing. In addition, alpha1 and alpha2 spectral power in the frontal brain was increased during several challenges including brain teasing, arithmetic calculations and performance of a memory test. From the literature, increases of spectral alpha1 power indicate a greater degree of calmness and may represent decreased depressive symptoms, while increases in alpha2 waves have been related to memory. Beta2 waves increased during mental performance in the presence of the higher dosage of Zembrin® in parietal, occipital and temporal brain regions. In comparison to placebo, Zembrin® induced frequency changes in the brain, which have been related to enhanced attention and memory. These results may represent a positive action of Zembrin® on cognitive and emotional processes in the brain.

Immersion Analysis Through Eye-Tracking and Audio in Virtual Reality

In this study,using Head Mounted Display(HMD),which is one of the biggest advantage of Virtual Reality(VR)environment,tracks the user’s gaze in 360◦video content,and examines how the gaze pattern is distributed according to the user’s immersion.As a result of analyzing the gaze pattern distribution of contents with high user immersion and contents with low user immersion through a questionnaire,it was confirmed that the higher the immersion,the more the gaze distribution tends to be concentrated in the center of the screen.Through this experiment,we were able to understand the factors that make users immerse themselves in the VR environment,and among them,the importance of the audio of the content was shown.Furthermore,it was found that the shape of the gaze distribution for grasping the degree of immersion by the subject of the content was different.While reviewing the experimental results,we also confirmed the necessity of research to recognize specific objects in a VR environment.

Quantitative Objective Assessment of Websites by Neurocode-Tracking in Combination with Eye-Tracking

Assessment of websites remains a definite challenge within advertisement research. In order to gather objective information, one possibility exists in using Eye-Tracking. This method allows for determination of where and how long particular areas of a website are fixed. However, longer fixation values do not necessarily reflect higher attention or even memorizing of the content. It could also mean that the content is too complicated. Therefore more information can be obtained by addition of quantitative analysis of brain electricity. Following the changes of the frequency content of electric brain activity has been recently introduced as “Neurocode-Tracking”. In the present study, quantitative assessment of websites has been performed by the combination of Neuro-code-Tracking with Eye-Tracking. Fast dynamic quantitative EEG recording with a time resolution of nearly 3 images/second provided electric power values according to frequency analysis in 17 brain regions (electrode positions). Particular values represented changes of electric brain activity, which were interpreted to represent visual perception, mental activation, concentration, stimulation, memory and tension according to earlier experience. Eye-Tracking was performed in a conventional manner by defining special areas of interest for detection of fixation lengths and time to first awareness. Ten male subjects (aged 36 ± 4.4 years) entered the study. They were asked to view Internet landing pages of five bank institutions: ComDirect, DKB, INGDiBa, Postbank and Targo-Bank. According to Eye-Track analysis, ComDirect was recognized to have the shortest time-to-awareness with respect to conditions, bonus, faces and application or address form. With respect to region of interest “service”, INGDiBa showed the shortest time-to-awareness. Neurocode-Tracking provided best results for INGDiBa with respect to mental activation and concentration. Stimulation and memory values were headed by Targo-Bank. Lowest tension was observed by the landing page of the Postbank. In summary, the combination of Neurocode-Tracking and Eye-Tracking provided much more information than any one of the methods used in separate. We therefore recommend this combination for the assessment and optimizing of Internet websites.

Neuromarketing: Neurocode-Tracking in Combination with Eye-Tracking for Quantitative Objective Assessment of TV Commercials

The term “neuromarketing” suggests a combination of marketing research and brain research. Within marketing research, objective assessment of TV commercials is performed by use of Eye-Tracking devices. Brain research has been dominated by NMRI technologies during the last years. However, information content and time resolution are much better when monitoring electric activity by spectral analysis. The current experimental approach was initiated in order to test the combination of a newly developed EEG technology (Neurocode-Tracking) with commercially available Eye-Tracking. Ten male subjects were exposed to a reference recording condition (watching a fixed cross on the screen) followed by 5 TV commercials representing 5 different banks. Video films obtained from Eye-Tracking (so-called heat maps) were synchronized with the results of Neurocode-Tracking in form of a second video with a time resolution of 364 ms per image. Spectral power analysis of the EEG in different brain regions allowed for assessment of single scenes for cognitive and emotional responses. Averaging of data over the whole time course gave information on mental activation, attention, visual perception, memory, pleasure and tension. Comparison of the 5 commercials to reference recording revealed the clip of the Targo-Bank having the highest values with respect to mental activation and attention.These experiments have proven that the combination of Neurocode-Tracking with Eye-Tracking can be successfully used in advertisement research and gives valid information on individual as well as group dependent cognitive and emotional responses leading to objective assessment of TV commercials.

Increasing Pupil Size Is Associated with Increasing Cognitive Processing Demands: A Pilot Study Using a Mobile Eye-Tracking Device

Previous studies have shown that increases in pupil size are correlated with increasing cognitive processing demands. Our aim was to confirm whether these findings could be replicated with new portable and less obtrusive eye-tracking technology. We assessed the percentage change of pupillary diameter from baseline as eight subjects completed a series of randomly ordered arithmetic problems of varying difficulty. The mean peak pupil diameter expressed as a percentage change from baseline was significantly greater when answering difficult questions compared to easier questions. Moreover, the time to reach peak pupillary diameter occurred significantly faster when participants answered easier questions compared to more difficult questions. Finally, there was a significant difference when all groups were compared to control. This experiment confirms findings of previous studies that show that pupillary size is related to cognitive processing demands. It also demonstrates that mobile eye-trackers can be used to reliably gather this type of data. Furthermore, this experiment provides the basis for future studies using eye-tracking technology in new environments, for example in the study of expertise and performance in medical crisis situations.

A Critique of Eye-Tracking Approach in Translation Process Research

With the rapid growth of eye-tracking studies in translation process research, concomitant methodologicalproblems have become increasingly prominent. This paper starts with the discussion of the controversial “eye-mindassumption”, and then focuses on various threats to experimental validity in research design and problems witheye-tracking data filtering and analysis. It is hoped that this discussion would be beneficial to those who are now orwill be engaged in eye-tracking based translation studies.

Proof of Effectiveness of PASCOFLAIR®in Subjects Suffering from Examination Anxiety Using Quantitative EEG in Combination with Eye-Tracking (EnkephaloVision). A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo Controlled, 2-Armed, Phase IV Study in Parallel Design

The pharmaco-dynamic action of plant-derived drugs still remains a big challenge in the field of pharmacology. This applies especially for the discovering of the possible mechanism of action. With respect to the brain, surrogate parameters may be very helpful. Non-invasive pharmaco-EEG has been proven to provide valid information on drug effects in general. Fast dynamic EEG recording with epoch length of 364 ms has now been achieved in combination with Eye-Tracking in order to elucidate single scenes during cognitive and emotional challenges (EnkephaloVision). The present investigation deals with the psychophysiological characterization of the effect of a plant-derived preparation marketed in Germany under the name of PASCOFLAIR® containing 425 mg of passionflower extract in subjects suffering from examination anxiety. Forty healthy volunteer subjects (17 men and 23 woman), with ages varying between 18 and 40 years (26 ± 6.726 for men and 25 ± 5.397 for women) were included into the study when having a score higher than 60 in the PAF (Pr&#220fungsangstfragebogen). Spectral power analysis of pre-drug data with respect to beta waves revealed a significant correlation to the score of the PAF. Increases of delta, theta and beta waves as induced by 4 cognitive and 4 emotional challenges were attenuated in the presence of 2 tablets of PASCOFLAIR® already 45 minutes after intake in a statistically significant manner in comparison to placebo. Regarding attenuation of beta1 and beta2 spectral power, effects on glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission, respectively, can be suspected according to our knowledge of frequency—transmitter relations. Accordingly, this attenuation must be interpreted as ability to counteract examination induced stress symptoms. Results confirm and extend earlier experimental data showing a calming action of PASCOFLAIR®.

Probing the processing of facial expressions in monkeys via time perception and eye tracking

Accurately recognizing facial expressions is essential for effective social interactions.Non-human primates(NHPs)are widely used in the study of the neural mechanisms underpinning facial expression processing,yet it remains unclear how well monkeys can recognize the facial expressions of other species such as humans.In this study,we systematically investigated how monkeys process the facial expressions of conspecifics and humans using eye-tracking technology and sophisticated behavioral tasks,namely the temporal discrimination task(TDT)and face scan task(FST).We found that monkeys showed prolonged subjective time perception in response to Negative facial expressions in monkeys while showing longer reaction time to Negative facial expressions in humans.Monkey faces also reliably induced divergent pupil contraction in response to different expressions,while human faces and scrambled monkey faces did not.Furthermore,viewing patterns in the FST indicated that monkeys only showed bias toward emotional expressions upon observing monkey faces.Finally,masking the eye region marginally decreased the viewing duration for monkey faces but not for human faces.By probing facial expression processing in monkeys,our study demonstrates that monkeys are more sensitive to the facial expressions of conspecifics than those of humans,thus shedding new light on inter-species communication through facial expressions between NHPs and humans.

Gazing through the bubble:an experimental investigation into financial risk‑taking using eye‑tracking

Eye tracking can facilitate understanding irrational decision-making in contexts such as financial risk-taking.For this purpose,we develop an experimental framework in which participants trade a risky asset in a simulated bubble market to maximize individual returns while their eye movements are recorded.Returns are sensitive to eye movement dynamics,depending on the presented visual stimuli.Using eye-tracking data,we investigated the effects of arousal,attention,and disengagement on individual payoffs using linear and nonlinear approaches.By estimating a nonlinear model using attention as a threshold variable,our results suggest that arousal positively influences trading returns,but its effect becomes smaller when attention exceeds a certain threshold,whereas disengagement has a higher negative impact on reduced attention levels and becomes almost irrelevant when attention increases.Hence,we provide a neurobehavioral metric as a function of attention that predicts financial gains in boomand-bust scenarios.This study serves as a proof-of-concept for developing future psychometric measures to enhance decision-making.

Machine learning models for stroke detection by observing the eye-movement features under five-color visual stimuli in traditional Chinese medicine

Objective:To develop a novel diagnostic modality to identify and diagnose stroke in daily life scenarios for improving the therapeutic effects and prognoses of patients.Methods:In this study,16 stroke patients and 24 age-matched healthy participants as controls were recruited for comparative analysis.Leveraging a portable eye-tracking device and integrating traditional Chinese medicine theory with modern color psychology principles,we recorded the eye movement signals and calculated eye movement features.Meanwhile,the stroke recognition models based on eye movement features were further trained by using random forest(RF),k-nearest neighbors(KNN),decision tree(DT),gradient boosting classifier(GBC),XGBoost,and CatBoost.Results:The stroke group and the healthy group showed significant differences in some eye movement features(P<.05).The models trained based on eye movement characteristics had good performances in recognizing stroke individuals,with accuracies ranging from 77.40%to 88.45%.Under the red stimulus,the eye movement model trained by RF became the best machine learning model with a recall of 84.65%,a precision of 86.48%,a F1 score of 85.47%.Among the six algorithms,RF and CatBoost performed better in classification.Conclusion:This study pioneers the application of traditional Chinese medicine's five-color stimuli to visual observation tasks.On the basis of the combined design,the eye-movement models can accurately identify stroke,and the developed high-performance models may be used in daily life scenarios.

Studying gaze abnormalities in autism: Which type of stimulus to use?

Background: Eye-tracking has been used to investigate social perception in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) with variable results. This heterogeneity may be due to the types of stimuli used. In this study, we investigated whether the use of moving vs static stimuli or human actors vs cartoons characters would be more sensitive in detecting gaze abnormalities and discriminating children with ASD from typically developing children. Methods: We studied 18 children with ASD (mean age = 12.9 ± 2.9) and 21 typically developing controls (mean age = 11.3 ± 2.5). Gazes were tracked using Tobii-T120 eye-tracker. Four different types of stimuli were presented: movie with human actors, cartoon movie, picture with human actors and cartoon picture. To identify the type of stimuli that best discriminate the ASD group from the control group, a two-way ANOVA was performed using ecological dimension [human-actors/cartoon] and presentation form [movie/picture] as factors. Results: Children with ASD presented significantly less fixations to eyes and faces in the movie with human actors and in the picture with human actors. Children with ASD also presented significantly more fixations to non-social backgrounds in the movie with human actors and in the cartoon movie. A significant ecological effect was observed for the reduction in fixations to the eyes [human-actors > cartoon]. A significant presentation form effect was observed for the increased fixations to the non-social background [movie > picture]. Conclusions: The direct comparison of gaze behavior across four different types of stimuli demonstrates that gaze abnormalities in ASD depend on the type of stimuli that is used. Our results suggest that general gaze abnormalities in children with ASD are better detected when using dynamic stimuli, and finer details of these abnormalities, especially looking less to the eyes, are better detected in a more ecologically relevant situation presenting human characters.

EnkephaloVision: Anatomical Functionality Indicated by Ultrashort Transient Regional EEG Spectral Power Changes during Cognitive and Emotional Challenges

Anatomical functionality is a major topic in brain research. Numerous investigations have shown task dependent activation of focal brain areas, with most information based on time-averaged data due to methodological limitations. Ultra-fast quantitative EEG, especially in the newly developed combination with eye tracking (EnkephaloVision), is very suitable to follow activities of local electric circuits. This investigation in 57 subjects revealed transient focal frequency changes reaching up to more than 6000% of global median spectra power during cognitive and emotional challenges at frontal electrode positions. Recording epochs of 364 ms uncovered coherences with respect to focal brain areas and single frequencies, which are typically lost during averaged calculations. When averaging data over a whole scene, a least demanding challenge like viewing a boring animal video only activated the lateral frontal lobe, whereas solving brain-teasers and performance of mathematical calculations led to delta (modulated by acetylcholine) and theta (modulated by norepinephrine) increases in all brain regions in a statistically significant manner. In addition to delta and theta increases, performance of the Stroop test led to beta2 (related to GABA-ergic transmission) increases in the temporal lobe. The higher the mental demand the more brain regions were involved during 10 different challenges. There was no challenge which did not activate the lateral frontal brain in terms of increases of delta and theta spectral power. The results are in line with the view that the lateral frontal lobe is involved primarily during cognitive and emotional behavior related to activity changes of acetylcholine and norepinephrine.

Review of eye diagnosis in traditional Chinese medicine:Modernization and future prospects

This article reviews the basic theories, methods, and clinical applications of eye diagnosis in traditional Chinese medicine(TCM). It introduces cutting-edge methods and applications and explains that the modernization of TCM eye diagnosis includes “equipment-assisted diagnosis” and “artificial intelligencebased diagnosis”. The article also notes that while there are many recent studies of the static attributes of eyes in modern TCM eye diagnosis, modern application research on the dynamic attributes of eyes in TCM diagnosis theory is relatively rare. We propose, therefore, that introducing advanced eye-movement detection technology into TCM clinical diagnosis could help to further modernize TCM eye diagnosis.

E-technology social support programs for autistic children: Can they work?

Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition with associated difficulties that present differently across individuals.One such difficulty is recognizing basic and complex facial expressions.Research has previously found that there are many evidence-based support programs available for building non-verbal communication skills.These programs are frequently administered with a therapist or in a group setting,making them inflexible in nature.Programs hosted on e-technology are becoming increasingly popular,with many parents supportive of them.Applications(apps)that are hosted on technology such as iPads or mobile phones allow users to engage in building skills in real-time social settings and own what they are learning.These technologies are frequently used by autistic children,with apps typically focusing on identifying facial features.Yet at this current time,there are mixed reviews of how to design such programs and what their theoretical backing is,with many studies using a mix of observation and psychological assessments as outcome measures.Eye-tracking and electroencephalography are established methodologies that measure neural processing and gaze behaviors while viewing faces.To better support the field moving forward,objective measures such as these are a way to measure outcomes of apps that are designed for helping children on the spectrum build skills in understanding facial expressions.

A complex presentation of body dysmorphic disorder, social phobia and unresolved grief

This case is a complex presentation of Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD), social phobia and unresolved grief in a 23 year old male with no social support. He appears to have benefitted immensely from a combination of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), antidepressant medication and Occupational Therapy. Identification of patients with BDD presenting in surgical and medical practices is essential and can be facilitated by validated screening tools such as the Body Dysmorphic Disorder Questionnaire (BDDQ). At the moment, the best evidence-based treatment is CBT and Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs). Nonetheless, novel approaches to therapeutic applications include the investigation of eye-tracking focus on body parts in BDD.

AB004.The dyslexia font OpenDyslexic facilitates visual processing of text and improves reading comprehension in adult dyslexia

Background:Proficient literacy skills and reading comprehension are crucial skills for participation and success in everyday life.One group that regularly falls short in demonstrating good reading skills are people with dyslexia.This group suffers from a range of visual deficits including the pattern of ocular movements,and distorted,blurred and reversed(or mirrored)vision of letters during reading.However,only recently designers started to develop affordable and easily implementable remedies that are supposed to reduce the visual symptoms of dyslexia such as specific dyslexia fonts.These fonts incorporate properties aimed at improving the visual and behavioural reading performance of people with dyslexia by using larger intra-and inter-word whitespace,unique letter shapes and no serifs.To date,empirical evidence about the efficacy of these fonts is contradictory,and their effects on adult dyslexics’eye movements and cognitive processing during longer reading tasks remains elusive.Methods:To bridge this gap,we measured the eye movements of adults with and without dyslexia during the reading of a set of standardised texts from the international reading speed texts(IReST;Trauzettel-Klosinski&Dietz,2012)reading battery coupled with validated comprehension questions.These texts and questions were presented either in the traditional font Times New Roman or the specific dyslexia font OpenDyslexic.Results:Here,we found that OpenDyslexic led to improvements in reading comprehension in dyslexics and non-dyslexics.These improvements were larger for dyslexics.Contrarily,participants’reading speed was unaffected by OpenDyslexic.Our eye-tracking data showed that OpenDyslexic resulted in a higher number of eye movements,reduced visual search intensity,and longer median fixation duration across participants.Particularly,median fixation duration,as a measure of cognitive load,was predictive of reading comprehension across groups.Among dyslexics,OpenDyslexic yielded increases in visual search intensity and visual ease in the form of decreases in median fixation duration and fixation to saccade ratio as well as a smaller number of falsely programmed forward saccades.Conclusions:Our findings illustrate that OpenDyslexic results in a different visual reading strategy.These findings provide empirical evidence for the efficacy of OpenDyslexic in longer standardised texts and suggest its use in everyday documents,education materials,and online sources.

AB064. Product knowledge predicts greater willingness to buy and gaze-related attention, salience does not

Background:Visual salience computed using algorithmic procedures have been shown to predict eye-movements in a number of contexts.However,despite calls to incorporate computationally-defined visual salience metrics as a means of assessing the effectiveness of advertisements,few studies have incorporated these techniques in a marketing context.The present study sought to determine the impact of visual salience and knowledge of a brand on eye-movement patterns and buying preferences.Methods:Participants(N=38)were presented with 54 pairs of products presented on the left and right sides of a blank white screen.For each pair,one product was a known North American product,such as Fresca®,and one was an unknown British product of the same category,such as Irn Bru®.Participants were asked to select which product they would prefer to buy while their eye movements were recorded.Salience was computed using Itti&Koch’s[2001]computational model of bottom-up salience.Products were defined as highly salient if the majority of the first five predicted fixations were in the region of the product.Results:Results showed that participants were much more likely to prefer to buy known products,and tentative evidence suggests that participants had longer total dwell times when looking at unknown products.Salience appears to have had little or no effect on preference for a product,nor did it predict total dwell time or time to first fixation.There also appears to be no interaction between knowledge of a product and visual salience on any of the measures analyzed.Conclusions:The results indicate that product salience may not be a useful predictor of attention under the constraints of the present experiment.Future studies could use a different operational definition of visual salience which might be more predictive of visual attention.Furthermore,a more fine-grained analysis of product familiarity based on survey data may reveal patterns obscured by the definitional constraints of the present study.

AB017.Group differences between individuals with dyslexia and normal readers while performing reading tasks

Background:Individuals with dyslexia present with a variety of reading related deficits including text comprehension,reading speed and word encoding.While previous literature addresses individual components of group differences,the present study compares individuals with dyslexia and normal readers on a variety of eye tracking components,as well as behavioural reading measures.The applied nature of this research allows for a comprehensive understanding of how individuals with dyslexia perceptually encode and process written texts.Using type font(i.e.,Times New Roman vs.OpenDyslexic;a font created to elevate visually specific characteristics of dyslexia)as a mediator,we investigated the group differences in eye movement patterns,text comprehension and reading speed between normal readers and individuals with dyslexia when reading standardized and validated texts designed for a grade six reading comprehension level.Methods:Our 73 participants included 38 normal reading controls and 35 individuals with dyslexia.Participants were administered the symbol search and coding subtests of The Wechsler Adult Scale of Intelligence.Participants then read ten texts from the International Reading Speed Texts:five texts in Times New Roman and five in OpenDyslexic,while binocular eye movements were recorded using a SR Research Eyelink 1000.Results:We found that irrespective of font type,when compared to controls,individuals with dyslexia demonstrated increased re-reading of texts[i.e.,regressions:CI(−0.99,−0.66),Hedges’s gs=−0.83]and number of saccades per trial[CI(−1.42,−1.08),gs=−1.25]as well as increased median fixation duration[CI(−1.15,−0.82),gs=−0.98].The control group had increased reading speed[words per minute:CI(1.48,1.84),gs=1.65],visited less interest areas[CI(−1.48,−1.13),gs=−1.31],and had fewer directional deviations from the horizontal-axis[CI(−0.49,−0.18),gs=−0.33].We found an interaction between text comprehension and font type,with both groups having improved performance with OpenDyslexic.However,results did not show a main effect of group with respect to text comprehension.Conclusions:The lack of group differences in text comprehension illustrates that high-functioning individuals with dyslexia are able to comprehend these elementary level texts,irrespective of font type.However,the erratic nature of their eye movements combined with a slow reading speed suggest that individuals with dyslexia read texts in a different manner;achieving the same understanding as normal readers.Our results suggest that reading speed differences act as compensatory methods in our sample of individuals with dyslexia.

Pattern-Prototype Effects of Processing Familiar Metonymy in Sentential Context

This study conducted an eye-tracking experiment on processing different patterns of Chinese familiar metonymy in sentential contexts.It analyzes five eye-tracking measures concerning the processing of metonymy.The results indicate that different patterns of metonymy experience different processing processes under a sentential-context condition,and results in prototype effects.The main finding is that Spatial Part&Whole metonymy is more prototypical than other three patterns of metonymy,i.e.,Container and Contained,Location and Located,Entity and Adjacent Entity,and that the effect of metonymy pattern on the processing is stable and observable.It concludes that contextual information facilitates the processing of non-prototypical metonymy,but restrain the processing of prototypical metonymy.