Analysis of the Changes in Rural Chinese Family Structure since Reform and Opening Up

This article uses data from censuses since 1982 to reveal changes in the family structure of rural China since the launch of reform and opening up and against the backdrop of institutional relocation,social transformation and an aging population.Since the advent of reform and opening up,rural family structure and its changes can be divided into two phases.Before the 1990 s,the household contract responsibility system was implemented,labor in rural villages was still mainly engaged in farming,and the number of nuclear families remained stable with a steady rise.After the 1990 s,as reform progress deepened,substantial numbers of young and middle-aged laborers in rural villages began to relocate into non-farming sectors and aging in rural villages rose.As those born in the early days of the family planning policy gradually matured,family structure was directly affected and changed in new ways and forms not seen before.Vocational divisions of labor among the parents of young families and married offspring emerged and the significance of cooperation for family economy and daily life between parents and offspring rose in importance.Also,the prevalence of immediate families with three generations climbed while the standard nuclear families declined,the ratio of middle-aged couples with young children that worked outside the home increased,the function of middle-aged and senior parents in the upbringing of infants and children enhanced,and the commonness of incomplete family types such as only grandparents with grandchildren increased.During this phase,the number of seniors living alone surged to the point of becoming a matter worthy of attention.

How Do Family Structure and Family Process Matter?A Comparative Study on the Impacts of Military Deployment and Single Parenthood on Children’s Psychological Well-Being

Children from two-parent families have better outcomes,on average,than children from single-parent families.Yet the mechanisms associated with family structure and family process that produce divergent outcomes are less well understood.Based on data from the 2011-2015 National Health Interview Survey(N=26,783),I leverage the case of military families with deployment and examine the impacts of parenting quality,economic capital,and social capital on children’s psychological well-being.The regression results show that single parenthood produced by divorce,separation,and birth out of wedlock leads to worse child outcomes than single parenthood produced by military deployment,and family process partially explains the variation in children’s well-being beyond family structure.Married families,military or civilian,deployed or not,enjoy advantages that translate into positive child outcomes.Marriage,therefore,emerges as the primary axis of inequality,and maintaining a healthy marriage better promotes children’s well-being.

An Analysis of Changes in the Chinese Family Structure between Urban and Rural Areas: On the Basis of the 2010 National Census Data

Changes in the Chinese family structure since 2000 are evident in a significant decrease in the share of nuclear families; a considerable increase in the share of single- person families; and a rise rather than a fall in the share of linear families. Changes in urban family structure differ from those in rural areas. In the former, the share of nuclear families has fallen, with a marked rise in single-person families and a slight fall in linear families. In the latter, there has been quite a large fall in the share of nuclear families and an increase in the share of single-person and linear families. Changes in the secondary family structure also show some differences. Population mobility, number of children, population aging, and marriage and housing conditions have a marked effect on the evolution of family structure. In an era when small families are dominant, the government and various social organizations should enhance public services for families; review the household registration system to lessen the regional separation of workers from other family members; and create conditions for improving intergenerational relations.

China’s Changing Family Structure and Adolescent Development

This paper examines the relationship between family structure and junior high school students’educational and psychosocial development and its intermediate mechanisms.Our findings show,firstly,that family structure affects children’s development,and children living with both parents have better educational and psychosocial development than those without one or both parents.Secondly,family structure affects children’s development to some extent through the two mechanisms of family socioeconomic status and parental participation in education.Thirdly,fathers and mothers play different roles in children’s development.Mothers are more important to children’s educational development,while fathers are more important to their psychosocial development.In addition,the distribution of family structure shows marked group heterogeneity,and families lacking both parents tend to be groups with a lower socioeconomic status.Since adolescent development is closely related to the acquisition of socioeconomic status in adulthood,the negative impact of parental absence on children’s development should not be neglected by academics and policy researchers.

Family structure and support for the oldest old:A cross-sectional study in Dujiangyan,China

Objective:In China,adult children have traditionally provided support for their aged parents.This model of care is increasingly challenged by the decline of the extended family.Recently,China’s decades-long one-child policy has eased.We examine the association of family size and composition with family support for nonagenarians and centenarians.Methods:Data were obtained through a questionnaire survey of 619 nonagenarians and cen-tenarians in Dujiangyan and were analyzed by chi-square tests,Student t tests,and multivariate logistic regression models.Results:This study revealed that an increased number of offspring might provide financial support for older people,but this does not necessarily translate into physical and emotional care.Conclusion:It is clear that although alternative sources of support for older people are in-creasingly needed,in China the family will continue to play an important role in supporting older people.

Comparative study on emotional behavior and parental job stress of only-child and non-only-child preschool children

BACKGROUND Studies have revealed that Children's psychological,behavioral,and emotional problems are easily influenced by the family environment.In recent years,the family structure in China has undergone significant changes,with more families having two or three children.AIM To explore the relationship between emotional behavior and parental job stress in only preschool and non-only preschool children.METHODS Children aged 3-6 in kindergartens in four main urban areas of Shijiazhuang were selected by stratified sampling for a questionnaire and divided into only and nononly child groups.Their emotional behaviors and parental pressure were compared.Only and non-only children were paired in a 1:1 ratio by class and age(difference less than or equal to 6 months),and the matched data were compared.The relationship between children's emotional behavior and parents'job stress before and after matching was analyzed.RESULTS Before matching,the mother's occupation,children's personality characteristics,and children's rearing patterns differed between the groups(P<0.05).After matching 550 pairs,differences in the children's parenting styles remained.There were significant differences in children's gender and parents'attitudes toward children between the two groups.The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire(SDQ)scores of children in the only child group and the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form(PSI-SF)scores of parents were significantly lower than those in the non-only child group(P<0.05).Pearson’s correlation analysis showed that after matching,there was a positive correlation between children's parenting style and parents'attitudes toward their children(r=0.096,P<0.01),and the PSI-SF score was positively correlated with children's gender,parents'attitudes toward their children,and SDQ scores(r=0.077,0.193,0.172,0.222).CONCLUSION Preschool children's emotional behavior and parental pressure were significantly higher in multi-child families.Parental pressure in differently structured families was associated with many factors,and preschool children's emotional behavior was positively correlated with parental pressure.

Characteristics of Time-space Utilization and Its Gender Differences in Traditional Family Model: A Case Study of Stem Family and Nuclear Family

Under the background of the current socio-economic transformation in China,family structure has changed from the stem family to the nuclear family.As the relationship between husband and wife tends to be balanced,part of the family’s financial dominance appears to be shared by both men and women.This article discusses how family structure restricts family members of different genders by carrying out in-depth interviews with nine families.By comparing the time allocation and spatial utilization behavior of individuals with different family structures,we find that compared with the stem family,female seems to undertake more labor work in the nuclear family for lack of help from elderly parents.There is a phenomenon of "gender inequality" in the allocation of housework time but "gender equality" in working time.

Synthesis and Crystal Structure of a New Quaternary Sulfide FeSm6Si2S14

One new quaternary rare-earth sulfide, FeSm6Si2S（14）, has been synthesized by a facile solid-state route with boron as the reducing reagent. It crystallizes in the noncentrosymmetric hexagonal space group P63, belonging to the Ce6Al（3.33）S（14） structure-type, and the AxRE3MQ7 family. Its crystal structure features a 3-D framework constructed by SmS 8 bicapped trigonal prisms, where Fe and Si atoms occupy the octahedral（2a） and tetrahedral（2c） voids, respectively. The FeS 6 octahedra are connected with each other to form a chain along the b direction. FeSm6Si2S（14） represents a new chemical composition among the large family of AxRE3MQ7 compounds. The other related compounds containing transition metal are also discussed.

Environmental correlates of sedentary behaviors and physical activity in Chinese preschool children:A cross-sectional study

Objective:This cross-sectional study examined environmental correlates of sedentary behavior(SB) and physical activity(PA) in preschool children in the urban area of Tianjin,China.Methods:Data were collected from the Physical Activity and Health in Tianjin Chinese Children study,involving healthy children 3-6 years old and their families.In all children(n=980),leisure-time SB(LTSB) and leisure-time PA(LTPA) were reported in min/day by parents.In a subgroup(n=134),overall sedentary time,light PA,and moderate-to-vigorous PA(MVP A) were objectively measured using ActiGraph accelerometry(>3 days,>10 h/day).Environmental correlates were collected using a questionnaire that included home and neighborhood characteristics(e.g.,traffic safety,presence of physical activity facilities) and children’s behaviors.Potential correlates were identified using linear regression analysis.Results:Multiple linear regression analysis showed that "having grandparents as primary caregivers"(βs and 95% confidence intervals(95%CIs)for overall sedentary time:29.7(2.1-57.2);LTSB(In):0.19(0.11-0.28)) and "having a television(for LTSB(In):0.13(0.00-0.25)) or computer(for LTSB(ln):0.13(0.03-0.23) in the child’ s bedroom" were both associated with higher SB.Furthermore, "having grandparents as primary caregivers" was associated with less MVPA(β(95%CI):-7.6(-14.1 to-1.2)),and "active commuting to school by walking" correlated with more MVPA(β(95%CI):9.8(2.2-17.4)).The path model showed that "more neighborhood PA facilities close to home" was indirectly related to higher LTPA(In),which was partly mediated by "outdoor play"(path coefficients(95%CI):0.005(0.002-0.008)) and "going to these facilities more often"(path coefficients(95%CI):0.013(0.008-0.01 8)).Traffic safety was not a correlate.Conclusion:Family structure and media exposure in the home maybe important factors in shaping preschoolers’ PA patterns.Built environmental correlates could indirectly influence preschoolers’ LTPA through parental help with engaging in active behaviors.

Intra-family Income Redistribution and Its Dynamic Changes among the Elderly in China:2002-2018

This paper studies the impact of household income redistribution on income inequality among the elderly from 2002 to 2018. It defines shared income and measures how each family member's contributions affect income inequality among the elderly. The study has three major findings. First, from 2013 to 2018, the role of household shared income in reducing income inequality among the elderly increased. Second, the proportion of shared income contributed by children was the highest overall, reaching 11.0 percent nationwide and even 17.9 percent in rural areas in 2018. The contribution of shared income to inequality was also higher among the rural elderly. Grandchildren under 16 largely received shared income from the elderly, and the income transferred by the male elderly to their wives was obvious. Third, changes in family structure narrowed the inequality gap among the elderly in the periods 2002–2013 and 2013–2018.

Family change in China:a-70 year perspective

From the perspective of family life cycle,and drawing on data from national population censuses,and one percent population surveys,as well as other relevant resources,this paper examines the changing trajectory of the Chinese family over the past 70 years,particularly since the reform and opening-up in 1978.It has been found that the changes of family life cycle are embedded in the broad context of socioeconomic transformation and demographic transition.The delayed age at first marriage has postponed the onset of family formation;the substantially reduced number of children has shortened the length of family expansion,but increased the time span of family stability and empty-nest,and the family is becoming old due to low birthrate and longer life expectancy.In other words,the six-stages associated with the traditional family life cycle has been largely reshaped in the past 70 years,which in turn substantially compromised traditional family functions.In the new era,therefore,it is necessary for the government to provide family-friendly policies in childcare and elderly support in order to fill in the gap in family-oriented public services,and to improve the potentials of long-term development of Chinese families.

Theorizing the Gendered Patriarchy of the Huaxia:Constancy(jing)/Expedience(quan)and Continuity(yin)/Change(bian)—From Male/Female Distinction to Inner/Outer Distinction in the Context of the Order of Family and State

The gender-based patriarchy of the Huaxia people,consisting of family and state order,inner/outer distinction and gender-based hierarchy,took shape in the period of radical transformation when the Zhou dynasty replaced the Shang dynasty and reached maturity in the Han dynasty,which had been established in the wake of the radical transformation conducted by the Zhou and Qin dynasties.On the basis of the principles of male/female distinction and the integration of family and state,Western Zhou aristocrats abolished the state structure the inner and outer governance systems(nei/waifuzhi内外服制),carried on in part the main patrilineage and surname exogamy of the Shang dynasty,and established the Huaxia patriarchal system.During the Qin and Han dynasties,the patriarchal system evolved into family and state isomorphism characterized by power-sharing between the royal house and its officials and by a two-pronged kinship system in which the male line was inner and the female line was outer.The system thus evolved into the Huaxia gender-based patriarchy,which covered spatial spheres,division of responsibilities,the kinship system,values and ethics,and codes of daily interaction and conduct.The distinction between the inner and the outer was not only a core value of the gender-based patriarchy but also its operational strategy.It also engendered such inter-related sub-systems as human functions,ethics and gender and such philosophical systems as the unity of heaven and man and the cosmic binaries of yin-yang(阴阳)and qian-kun(乾坤).The constancy(经jing)/Expedience(权quan)and Continuity(因yin)/Change(变bian)of the gender-based patriarchy,the jing/quan at the heart of the basic system and governance strategy within its constraints jointly ensured the stability and dynamism of the gender-based patriarchy of the Huaxia people.

The Impact of Population Aging on Housing Demand in China Based on System Dynamics

In recent years, the proportion of China's elderly population is gradually increasing, and the real estate market is changing dramatically. Consequently the impact of population aging on housing demand has become increasingly prominent. On the theoretical basis of the relationship between population aging, family structure and housing demand, this paper firstly constructs a system dynamics model of the impact of population aging and family structure on housing demand in China. Then,the model is simulated, and several scenarios of population, family structure, and real estate policies are set up. The main conclusions of this paper are as follows: China's population will rise at first and then decrease, reaching a peak of 1.401 billion by 2023. As the proportion of elderly population increases, the degree of population aging is becoming increasingly serious. The size of the family will gradually shrink to 2.39 people per household in 2050. The housing demand will increase first and then decrease. Through the results of scenario simulation, this paper puts forward the following suggestion to effectively balance the housing demand in China: Completely relaxing family planning policies,imposing a real estate tax, canceling the pre-sale policy, and raising the loan rate.

Hypothesis and Thought Experiment: Comparing Cognitive Competition of Neandertals and Early Humans, to Our Coming Contest with AIs

The history of how Homo sapiens out-survived the Neanderthals is recalled here with the goal of conceiving an edge in our coming competition with a faster, stronger artificial intelligence (AI) who has far greater capacity for information storage. The social and cognitive differences between the two hominid species, Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis, are described. Based on findings from genomics, neuroscience, archaeology, and paleobiology, it appears possible that the capacities of Homo sapiens could outreach those of AIs in some ways. Especially important are human visuospatial, cultural, and, oddly enough, theological capacities, and the interaction of these capacities in group problem-solving. While communication between AIs is fast and can be widespread, the authors ask whether this is the right kind of communication for solving problems of survival. An important question is explored throughout: Is it ethical to withhold from AIs human-like capacities that may become possible to install? Finally, a worrisome question is broached: Is it the best course to create AIs in our own image to safeguard our existence in unknown future interactions with extraterrestrial species, both organic and inorganic?