Feathered Fossils

THE next time people see an adventure sci-fi movie like Hollywood＇s Jurassic Park, dinosaurs in the movie may look very different, especially the Tyrannosaurus rex. They could be feathered,

Feathered Friend

“我一个人呆得要发疯了，”帕特·迈尔斯对女儿安妮坦白说。实质上，自从帕特因太阳穴处一条动脉发炎影响了视力和精力，一年来的治疗使她只能呆在家里。

Feathered sand ridges in the Kumtagh Desert and their position in the classification system

Feathered sand ridges in the northeastern Kumtagh Desert in China cover an area of 4016 km 2 and consist of crescent sand ridges and interridge tongue-shaped dunes.Differences in grain size,mineral composition and albedo between crescent sand ridges and tongue-shaped dunes,and between windward and leeward slopes of tongue-shaped dunes,result in their feathery appearance in aerial and satellite imagery.Measurements of the sand drift potential in the region show that the sand-moving wind for feathered sand ridges can be divided into three sectors;i.e.north-northeasterly,easterly and east-northeasterly sectors roughly corresponding to the southeast,northwest and southwest slip faces.Our findings suggests that the crescent sand ridges resulting from the connection of barchan dunes along the prevailing wind direction are longitudinal dune ridges rather than transverse ones.Tongue-shaped dunes and quasi-dune shapes have obvious distinctions and are new transverse dune types.According to McKee's dune shape classification,the feathered sand ridges are not a deformation dune type but a complex one.According to Wu's dune morphological and genetic classification,they are not dune ridges or compound dune ridges that form under the action of unidirectional winds or two winds intersecting at an acute angle,but are complex dune ridges that form under the action of three winds intersecting at an acute angle.

Feathered dinosaurs from China and the evolution of major avian characters

Recent discoveries of feathered dinosaurs from Early Cretaceous deposits in Liaoning,China,have not only lent strongest support for the dinosaurian hypothesis of bird origins,but have also provided much-needed information about the origins of feathers and avian flight.Preliminary analysis of character evolution suggests that the major avian osteological characters were acquired during the early evolution of maniraptoran dinosaurs.The available evidence also suggests that the first feathers with a filamentous morphology probably evolved in basal coelurosaurs and pennaceous feathers(including those with aerodynamic features)were developed in non-avian maniraptorans,indicating that feathers evolved before the origin of birds and their flight.An evolutionary model is proposed here to describe the major stages of feather evolution,a process characterized by a combination of both transformational and innovative modifications.This model is different from some recent developmental models,which suggest that feathers are evolutionary novelties without a homologous relationship to reptilian scales.Although non-avian theropods are traditionally regarded as distinctly cursorial animals,recent discoveries suggest that the closest relatives of birds might be arboreal theropods.Many bird features,such as the furcula and pennaceous feathers,evolved in a terrestrial context,whereas others,such as some pedal modifications,may have evolved in an arboreal context.Consequently,arboreality may have also contributed to the origin of avian flight.

Nest decoration:Black feathers prevent Crested Mynas from nest usurpation

Nests are important structures for birds to raise their offspring and for signaling.Many birds incorporate feathers into the nest,since feathers were traditionally thought to serve the function of insulation.Hypotheses in recent years have considered that some birds place feathers in conspicuous locations in the nest for decoration to trigger a fear response in the competitors.In this study,we investigated whether decorative feathers could deter nest usurpation by Crested Mynas(Acridotheres cristatellus)by manipulating nest box contents.The results revealed that Crested Mynas preferred black feathers to white feathers as decorations and occupied nest boxes decorated with black feathers significantly less than those decorated with white feathers,suggesting that black decorative feathers in the nest could be more effective in preventing nest usurpation by Crested Mynas and that white decorative feathers may have other functions.The black feathers in the nest are prominently placed at the edge of the nest to convey the message that“this nest is occupied”or“the owner of this nest has been preyed upon”to visitor Crested Mynas,thus effectively preventing them from usurping the nest at a later stage.

Effects of Fermented Puffed Feather Meal on Growth Performance,Serum Biochemical Indices,Meat Quality,and Intestinal Microbiota in Broilers

This study aimed to investigate the effects of fermented puffed feather meal(FPFM)on growth performance,serum biochemical indices,meat quality,and intestinal microbiota in Arbor Acres(AA)broilers.A single-factor design was adopted,and four treatments were administered with five replicates to 240 one-day-old AA broilers.The control group(group A)received a basal diet,while the experimental groups received a basal diet plus 33%(group B),67%(group C)and 100%(group D)FPFM,respectively.Compared with group A,(1)the average daily gain(ADG)in group C decreased(P<0.05),and the feed conversion ratio(FCR)in group D increased(P<0.05);(2)the level of serum urea nitrogen in treatment groups decreased(P<0.05),and the levels of triglyceride,high density lipoprotein,low density lipoprotein,cholesterol,and glucose contents in group D increased(P<0.05)at day 21;(3)the serum immunoglobulin M and immunoglobulin G in group B and the immunoglobulin A in group C increased(P<0.05)at day 21,and the serum immunoglobulin M and immunoglobulin G in group D decreased(P<0.05)at day 42;(4)the share force of breast muscle and thigh muscle in group D increased(P<0.05);(5)the villus height to crypt depth ratio in the jejunum of group B increased(P<0.05)at day 21,and the villus height in group C and D increased(P<0.05)at day 42;(6)the proteobacteria counts in the cecum digesta in treatment groups decreased(P<0.05)at day 21.The basal diet supplemented with 33%FPFM promoted protein metabolism,enhanced immunity and improved meat quality,promoted the digestion and absorption of nutrients,increased intestinal microbial diversity,and improved the content of beneficial bacteria without affecting the growth performance,it was possible to be used as a good substitute for fish meal.

Physiological strategies of moult-migrating Black-necked Grebes(Podiceps nigricollis)in a polluted staging site according to blood chemistry

After breeding,Black-necked Grebes(Podiceps nigricollis)perform a moult-migration to autumn hypersaline staging sites,where they moult the flight feathers and forage on superabundant brine shrimp(Artemia spp.)before leaving for wintering areas.During the stay in moulting sites,the grebes experience changes in organs and muscle size(atrophy,hypertrophy),and almost double their body mass,which has been suggested to act as an insurance against a collapse in prey availability in late autumn.During two years we collected blood samples from hundreds of individuals at one of the most important European moulting sites(the Odiel marshes,SW Spain),which is a highly polluted area due to mining drainage and chemical industry.We assessed the potential effect of moulting stage,day of the year and body condition on 16 blood biochemical parameters.Because of the changes in prey availability and body composition of grebes,we expected some physiological adjustments during moult.Elevated levels of cholesterol suggested that birds in active moult increased foraging effort to face the costs of moulting.There was increased amount of lactate dehydrogenase,corresponding to periods of breast muscle atrophy.Birds in active moult augmented protein ingestion,likely to account for the requirements of feather growth.We also show that the probability of fasting due to low prey availability increased late in the moulting season,as demonstrated by an increase in plasmaβ-hydroxy-butyrate.

Preliminary Study on Inheritance Pattern of Feather Color in Hybrid Offspring of Texan Pigeon and American Silver King Pigeon

[Objective]This study aimed to explore the inheritance pattem of feather color in hybrid offspring of Texan pigeon and American Silver King pigeon, so as to provide a theoretical basis for the breeding of feather color auto-sexing strains. [Method]The segregation situation of feather color in the male and female offspring of Texan pigeon （♂）×American Silver King pigeon （♀）（TKYW） and American Silver King pigeon （♂） ×Texan pigeon （♀） （YWTK） was analyzed. [Result]The feather color of TKYW offspring was all slate gray. Among the offspring of YWTK, the feather color of the males was all slate gray, while the feather color of the females was all silver gray; and the ratio between different colors was 1：1 （P 〉 0.05）. The F1 generation of YWTK was subjected to selfing, and the feather color of the male and female F2 generation was analyzed. It was found that the ratio of silver gray （male） to slate gray （male） to silver gray （female） to slate gray （female） was 1：1：1：1 （P 〉 0.05）. On the basis of the above results, it could be preliminarily predicated that the feather color control genes of Texan pigeon are Z^BZB and Z^BW and those of American Silver King pigeon are Z^bZ^b and Z^bW. There is a cumulative effect on B which is dominant for b. [Conclusion] This study will better solve the problem of male and female identification of pigeon in the early period.

Morphological and Phylogenetic Study Based on New Materials ofAnchiornis huxleyi (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from Jianchang, Western Liaoning, China

Anchiornis huxleyi, which is a member of the Middle-Late Jurassic Yanliao Biota, is the smallest feathered dinosaur ever known. It has been described as a critical link between feathered dinosaurs and birds. Recent studies, including those of Anchiornis, Xiaotingia, Eosinopteryx and Aurornis, challenged Archaeopteryx as the most basal bird. The new Anchiornis huxleyi specimens that are described in this paper show some minor different characters compared to previously reported Anchiornis specimens, which has revised the character list of Anchiornis and indicates a different phylogenetic point from former opinions.

Design and Implementation of Paired Pectoral Fins Locomotion of Labriform Fish Applied to a Fish Robot

In present,there are increasing interests in the research on mechanical and control system of underwater vehicles.These ongoing research efforts are motivated by more pervasive applications of such vehicles including seabed oil and gas explorations, scientific deep ocean surveys,military purposes,ecological and water environmental studies,and also entertainments. However,the performance of underwater vehicles with screw type propellers is not prospective in terms of its efficiency and maneuverability.The main weaknesses of this kind of propellers are the production of vortices and sudden generation of thrust forces which make the control of the position and motion difficult. On the other hand,fishes and other aquatic animals are efficient swimmers,posses high maneuverability,are able to follow trajectories,can efficiently stabilize themselves in currents and surges,create less wakes than currently used underwater vehicle, and also have a noiseless propulsion.The fish's locomotion mechanism is mainly controlled by its caudal fin and paired pectoral fins.They are classified into Body and/or Caudal Fin(BCF)and Median and/or paired Pectoral Fins(MPF).The study of highly efficient swimming mechanisms of fish can inspire a better underwater vehicles thruster design and its mechanism. There are few studies on underwater vehicles or fish robots using paired pectoral fins as thruster.The work presented in this paper represents a contribution in this area covering study,design and implementation of locomotion mechanisms of paired pectoral fins in a fish robot.The performance and viability of the biomimetic method for underwater vehicles are highlighted through in-water experiment of a robotic fish.

A combined airfoil with secondary feather inspired by the golden eagle and its influences on the aerodynamics

Bird flight is a remarkable adaption that has allowed thousands of species to colonize all terrestrial habitats. A golden eagle has impressive flying abilities, such as hovering, perching, preying and attacking. To reveal the flying abilities, avian geometry of a golden eagle was extracted based on noncontact surface measurements using a ROMBER three-dimensional laser scanner. Distributions of a camber line, thickness and a secondary feather line of the extracted point cloud were fitted using convenient analytical expressions. A traditional airfoil was established with the camber line and thickness, then a combined airfoil was constructed by combining the traditional airfoil with a secondary feather. Oscillations of an airfoil as well as rapid pitch up were simplified as a sine wave around the quarter chord axis. Thereafter, both steady and unsteady aerodynamic performances of the airfoil are computed, the influences of the secondary feather on the steady and unsteady aerodynamics were further studied.

Expression levels of GSTA2 and APOD genes might be associated with carotenoid coloration in golden pheasant(Chrysolophus pictus) plumage

Carotenoids, which generate yellow, orange, and red colors, are crucial pigments in avian plumage. Investigations into genes associated with carotenoid- based coloration in avian species are important; however, such research is difficult because carotenoids cannot be synthetized in vertebrates as they are only derived from dietary sources. Here, the golden pheasant （Chrysolophus pictus） was used as a model in analysis of candidate gene expression profiles implicated in carotenoid binding and deposition. Using mass and Raman spectrometry to confirm the presence of carotenoids in golden pheasant feathers, we found C40H540 and C40H5602 in feathers with yellow to red colors, and in the rachis of iridescent feathers. The global gene expression profiles in golden pheasant skins were analyzed by RNA-seq and all six carotenoid binding candidate genes sequenced were studied by real- time PCR. STAR4, GSTA2, Scarbl, and APOD in feather follicles showed different expressions in red breast and orange nape feathers compared with that of iridescent mantle feathers. Further comparison of golden pheasant yellow rump and Lady Amherst＇s pheasant （Chrysolophus amherstiae） white nape feathers suggested that GSTA2 and APOD played a potential role in carotenoid-based coloration in golden pheasant.

Characterization of an extreme alkaline-stable keratinase from the draft genome of feather-degrading Bacillus sp.JM7 from deep-sea

Bacillus sp. JM7, a strain isolated from the deep-sea of the South China Sea, was found to efficiently degrade 79.4% native chicken feather within 30 h. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that JM7 strain could gradually degrade feather by modifying the microstructure of feather keratin. A total of 25 protease genes were predicted from the draft genome of JM7 strain, among which a predicted subtilisin-like serine protease(designated as Ker02562) was further characterized for its keratinolytic activity. The recombinant Ker02562 functioned at a wide range of temperatures from 30℃ to 60℃, with an optimum at 40–50℃. Ker02562 was highly active at various pHs ranging from 5.0 to 13.0, with a maximum activity observed at pH 7.0–9.0. Remarkably, recombinant Ker02562 was stable in extreme alkaline environments(pH 10–13), which was much better than most other reported keratinases. Collectively, these favorable properties could make Bacillus sp. JM7 and Ker02562 attractive to be applied in the detergent formulation and feather bioconversion.

Observation on Ultra-micro Structure of Eggshell and Analysis of Composition of Eggshell and Feather in Great Bustard

Ultra-micro structure of eggshell was observed and compositions of eggshell and feather were analyzed. The results showed that the structure of eggshell has special characters besides common structure. The content of poisonous elements in wild great bustard(Otis talda) eggshell and feather is significant lower than that in eggshell of crested foes(Nipponis nippon) and in feather of red crown crane(Grus japonesis) because of less disturbance by people. The contents of 14 elements of female’s feather all are higher than those of male’s.

The structure,tensile properties and water resistance of hydrolyzed feather keratin-based bioplastics

Feather, as a by-product of the poultry industry, has long been treated as a solid waste, which causes environ- mental and economic problems. In this work, the hydrolyzed feather keratin （HFK） was extracted from the chicken feather using a cost-effective method of alkali-extraction and acid-precipitation by applying urea and sodium sulfide. The aim was development and characterization of the eco-friendly films based on the HFK with variable glycerol contents by a thermoplastic process. The thermal analysis showed that high temperature and high pres- sure improved the compatibility between the glycerol and the HFI（ molecules. Also it was shown that the addi- tion of water is necessary in the hot-pressing process of films, The FT-IR analysis indicated that the formation of the new hydrogen bonds between HFK and glycerol. By increasing the glycerol content, the film tensile strength （orb ） decreases from 10,5 MPa to 5.7 MPa and the solubility increases from 15.3% to 20.9%, while the elongation at break （εb） achieves the maximum value of 63,8% for the film with 35% glycerol. The swelling was just below 16.9% at 25 ℃ for 24 h, suggesting a good stability of the films in water. The water vapor permeability （WVP） varied between 3.02 x 10 ^10g. m 2. s-1 . pa-1 and 4.11 x 10-10g · m-2 · s-1 · Pa-1 for the films with 20%and 40% glycerol, respectively. The HFK film was uniform, translucent and tough, which could be used in packaging and agricultural field.

Age and Gender Dependent Amino Acid Concentrations in the Feather, Feather-Free and Whole Empty Body Protein of Fast Growing Meat-Type Chickens

Two consecutive growth experiments with meat-type chickens (Ross 308) were conducted in order to quantify the age-dependent amino acid (AA) content in the whole body protein of male and female birds based on experimental data of the feather and feather-free body protein fractions. Birds were reared under uniform housing and feeding conditions (floor pens, 15 pens per gender, 5 birds per pen) during the starter (day 1 to 22) and grower period (day 22 to 36). Both the starter and grower diet based on corn, wheat, soybean meal, soybean protein concentrate and feed amino acids was formulated to ensure an equal feed protein quality close to the ideal amino acid ratio by adjusting a constant mixture of the feed proteins. At start of the experiment and further on weekly up to the end of the 5th week, 15 birds per gender (each 3 pens of 5 birds) were selected and fasted for 24 h, to emptying of gastro-intestinal tract, respectively. Subsequently, birds were euthanized and the feathers were manually removed. Nitrogen (N) and AA content were determined both in the feather and feather-free body fraction. The concentration of individual AAs in both of body protein fraction is varying considerably. Explicitly higher Cys, Ser and Pro but importantly lower Met, Lys and His concentrations were found in the feather protein. Furthermore, significant differences (p for nearly all AAs of the studied body protein fractions and the whole empty body protein dependent on age of birds were observed. Especially high deviations were obtained during the first week of age and at the end of the experiment. According to this observed variation of AA concentrations must be concluded that the body AA composition of meat-type chickens during growth is not constant. The detected gender-specific differences for several AAs in the feather and body protein of male and female birds were rather low and with very low variation.

Age and Gender Dependent Nutrient Composition of Feather and Feather-Free Body Fractions in Meat-Type Chickens

The objective of this research was to update current results about the nutrient composition of broiler chickens during the growth period up to market age. Two growth experiments were conducted for assessing the nutrient content of feathers and feather-free body of meat-type chickens (Ross 308). Both male and female birds were reared under uniform management conditions (floor pens;15 pens per gender;5 birds per pen). Experimental diets both for the starter (day 1 to 22) and the grower period (day 22 to 36) were based on corn, wheat, soybean meal, soybean protein concentrate and well balanced with feed amino acids. The feed protein quality was adapted to the ideal amino acid ratio and equated within both of the feeding periods by adjusting a constant mixture of the feed proteins. Each 15 birds per gender (3 pens of 5 birds) were selected and subsequently fasted for 24 h before quantitative de-feathering both at start of the experiment and further on weekly up to the end of the 5th week. Nutrient content was determined in representative samples of the feather and feather-free body fraction. In the feather dry matter (DM) very high crude protein (CP) concentrations (>96%) with low age-dependent and insignificant gender-specific differences were observed. In spite, a relatively high variation of CP content in the DM of feather-free body was found. Depending on age, the body CP significantly decreased with increasing age, but male birds yielded higher (p < 0.001) CP content. The crude lipid content of the feather-free and whole empty body significantly increased with age and was higher in female as compared to male birds (p < 0.001). Depending on age and gender, the crude ash content both in feathers and feather-free body of modern fast-growing chickens was rather low and with very low variation.

Two Field Techniques for Estimating Relative Abundance of Galliformes

Galliformes are often difficult to count adequately in their natural habitats due to low detectability of them. In the present study, we confirm availability of feather-count and feces-count as two useful field techniques to estimate the relative abundance of eared-pheasants (Crossoptilon spp.). The former is suitable to forest environments during the post-incubation period, whereas the latter is best in areas with dry climate conditions during the fall-winter season. With the advantages of reduced survey effort and high repeatability, the two techniques are potentially applicable to other Galliform species in habitat selection studies and long-term population monitoring.

Flight feather moult in Western Marsh Harriers during autumn migration

Background:Most of long-distance migratory raptors suspend moult during migration but detailed information is patchy for most of the Palearctic species.The aim of this research is to verify if active moulting in migrating Western Marsh Harriers occurs and to quantify the extent of moulting along the season focusing on primary feathers.Methods:During a whole post-breeding migration at the Strait of Messina in Southern Italy,we gathered information about symmetrical flight feather moult from 221 adults by taking pictures of raptors passing at close range.Results:We found active moulting primaries during autumn migration in 48.4% of our samples.Slight differences on the extension and timing among sex classes were recorded during the season,with adult females showing a more advanced moult stage than adult males.Conclusion:The finding that the extension of the suspended moult was already defined in migratory individuals might be explained as an adaptation to minimize the energy required for moulting during migration.

Developing and validating a nestling photographic aging guide for cavity-nesting birds: an example with the European Bee-eater(Merops apiaster)

Background: Accurate estimation of nestlings’ age is essential in avian demography studies as well as in population ecology and conservation. For example, it can be useful for synchronizing nest visits with events of particular interest, such as the age at which young can be safely ringed, or in choosing the best period to attain the most accurate calculation of laying or hatching dates.Methods: We constructed a photographic guide for aging European Bee-eaters(Merops apiaster) nestlings to 3-day age classes and evaluated the aging method by performing a validation exercise with several observers with no previous experience in aging bee-eater nestlings.Results: The aging guide for bee-eater nestlings allowed estimating age to within 3 days with an average accuracy of 0.85. We found the optimal period for aging nestlings was between days 13-18(with accuracy between 0.94 and 0.99), during which the status of feather development was more easily distinguishable from the preceding and subsequent age classes. During the first 3 days after hatching, nestlings could also be aged with high accuracy(0.93). The small size of the nestling in relation to the eggs and the nestling’s inability to raise its head during these first days allowed for good discrimination from the subsequent age class. Between days 25 and 28, nestlings were correctly aged in only half of assignments(0.55 sensitivity) and nestlings belonging to class 7(days 7-9) were the least correctly identified(0.38 sensitivity). However, by visiting the nests at 12 days intervals it is possible to achieve the highest accuracy in age estimation with the smallest disturbance and logistic investment.Conclusions: This study highlighted how indirect methods and a simple protocol can be established and employed to quickly estimate nestling age in cases where handling nestlings is challenging or impossible, while minimizing disturbance in and around the nest.