Economic resources,childcare services,and son preference:a conjoint analysis of fertility potential in China

Using a randomized experiment that we designed for the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey,this study conducts a conjoint analysis to explore the fertility potential among Chinese adults.We examine the separate impacts of different factors and their heterogeneity across social groups.The results suggest that fertility potential is context-dependent.In addition,greater economic resources and availability of childcare significantly increase fertility potential.However,preferences in terms of the care provider,family versus the market,vary by gender,educational level,and desired number of children.Notably,we also find that son preference no longer has a significant effect on fertility potential in China.In light of China’s current low fertility,our study suggests that childbearing behavior will become increasingly differentiated by socioeconomic status.Fertility-enhancing policies should focus on supplementing economic resources and improving access to childcare.

Clinical significance of the low normal sperm morphology value as proposed in the fifth edition of the WHO Laboratory Manual for the Examination and Processing of Human Semen

The very low cut-off value for sperm morphology of 4% morphologically normal spermatozoa, as proposed in the new edition of the World Health Organization （WHO） manual on semen analysis, is in agreement with recently published values and reflects the trend of a decline in reported mean values for normal sperm morphology. The reduced value for morphologically normal spermatozoa over the years may be due to several factors. The first is the introduction of strict criteria for the evaluation of sperm morphology. Other reasons may include the introduction of additional criteria for sperm morphology abnormalities and the suggested decrease in semen parameters because of increasing negative environmental influences. Although on its own the newly proposed very low normal value may not provide the strong predictive value for a males＇ fertility potential, as originally reported for sperm morphology evaluated according to strict criteria, a good predictive value can still be obtained if the holistic, strict approach for sperm morphology evaluation is followed together with additional sperm morphology parameters now available, because certain morphology patterns and sperm abnormalities are now known to be of strong prognostic value. In addition, better international standardization of the technical methodology, consensus on the interpretation of sperm morphology evaluation criteria and standardized international external quality control （EQC） schemes, are of utmost importance to maintain the good predictive value of sperm morphology.

Measurement and significance of sperm morphology

The measurement or evaluation and clinical significance of human sperm morphology has always been and still is a controversial aspect of the semen analysis for the determination of a male＇s fertility potential. In this review the background of the development of the evaluation criteria for sperm morphology will be discussed. Aspects of criticism on the strict criteria definition and use of the criteria for sperm morphology evaluation will be discussed as well as possible reasons for the decline in normal sperm morphology values and how we can compromise for this phenomenon resulting in the very low normal reference value as published in the 2010 WHO manual for the Examination and Processing of Human Semen. One of the possible solutions may be to give more attention to a limited number of abnormal sperm morphology categories and the inclusion of sperm morphology patterns. It is concluded in this review that if done correctly and with care and with strict application of existing guidelines as outlined in the 2010 WHO manual, sperm morphology measurement still has a very important role to play in the clinical evaluation of male fertility potential.

The effects of nitrogen fertilizer application on methane and nitrous oxide emission/uptake in Chinese croplands

The application of nitrogen（N） fertilizer to increase crop yields has a significant influence on soil methane（CH_4） and nitrous oxide（N_2O） emission/uptake.A meta-analysis was carried out on the effect of N application on（i） CH_4 emissions in rice paddies,（ii） CH_4 uptake in upland fields and（iii） N_2O emissions.The responses of CH_4 emissions to N application in rice paddies were highly variable and overall no effects were found.CH_4 emissions were stimulated at low N application rates（〈100 kg N ha^（-1）） but inhibited at high N rates（〉200 kg N ha^（-1）） as compared to no N fertilizer（control）.The response of CH_4 uptake to N application in upland fields was 15%lower than control,with a mean CH_4 uptake factor of-0.001 kg CH_4-C kg^（-1） N.The mean N_2O emission factors were 1.00 and 0.94%for maize（Zea mays） and wheat（Triticum aestivum）,respectively,but significantly lower for the rice（Oryza sativa）（0.51%）.Compared with controls,N addition overall increased global warming potential of CH_4 and N_2O emissions by 78%.Our result revealed that response of CH_4 emission to N input might depend on the CH_4concentration in rice paddy.The critical factors that affected CH_4 uptake and N_2O emission were N fertilizer application rate and the controls of CH_4 uptake and N_2O emission.The influences of application times,cropping systems and measurement frequency should all be considered when assessing CH_4 and N_2O emissions/uptake induced by N fertilizer.