The mechanism underlying overwintering death in poplar:the cumulative effect of effective freeze-thaw damage

We analyzed the relationships linking overwintering death and frost cracking to temperature and sunlight as well as the effects of low temperatures and freeze–thaw cycles on bud-burst rates,relative electrical conductivity,and phloem and cambial ultrastructures of poplar.Overwintering death rates of poplar were not correlated with negative accumulated temperature or winter minimum temperature.Freeze–thaw cycles caused more bud damage than constant exposure to low temperatures.Resistance to freeze–thaw cycles differed among clones,and the budburst rate decreased with increasing exposure to freeze–thaw cycles.Cold-resistant clones had the lowest relative electrical conductivity.Chloroplasts exhibited the fastest and the most obvious reaction to freeze–thaw damage,whereas a single freeze–thaw cycle caused little damage to cambium ultrastructure.Several such cycles resulted in damage to plasma membranes,severe damage to organelles,dehydration of cells and cell death.We conclude that overwintering death of poplar is mainly attributed to the accumulation of effective freeze–thaw damage beyond the limits of freeze–thaw resistance.

Surface crack evolution patterns in freeze-thaw damage of fissured rock bodies

To explore the effects of freeze‒thaw cycles on the mechanical properties and crack evolution of fissured sandstone,biaxial compression experiments were carried out on sandstone subjected to freeze‒thaw cycles to characterize the changes in the physical and mechanical properties of fissured sandstone caused by freeze‒thaw cycles.The crack evolution and crack change process on the surface of the fissured sandstone were recorded and analysed in detail via digital image technology(DIC).Numerical simulation was used to reveal the expansion process and damage mode of fine-scale cracks under the action of freeze‒thaw cycles,and the simulation results were compared and analysed with the experimental data to verify the reliability of the numerical model.The results show that the mass loss,porosity,peak stress and elastic modulus all increase with increasing number of freeze‒thaw cycles.With an increase in the number of freeze‒thaw cycles,a substantial change in displacement occurs around the prefabricated cracks,and a stress concentration appears at the crack tip.As new cracks continue to sprout at the tips of the prefabricated cracks until the microcracks gradually penetrate into the main cracks,the displacement cloud becomes obviously discontinuous,and the contours of the displacement field in the crack fracture damage area simply intersect with the prefabricated cracks to form an obvious fracture.The damage patterns of the fractured sandstone after freeze‒thaw cycles clearly differ,forming a symmetrical"L"-shaped damage pattern at zero freeze‒thaw cycles,a symmetrical"V"-shaped damage pattern at 10 freeze‒thaw cycles,and a"V"-shaped damage pattern at 20 freeze‒thaw cycles.After 20 freeze‒thaw cycles,a"V"-shaped destruction pattern and"L"-shaped destruction pattern are formed;after 30 freeze‒thaw cycles,an"N"-shaped destruction pattern is formed.This shows that the failure mode of fractured sandstone gradually becomes more complicated with an increasing number of freeze‒thaw cycles.The effects of freeze‒thaw cycles on the direction and rate of crack propagation are revealed through a temperature‒load coupled model,which provides an important reference for an in-depth understanding of the freeze‒thaw failure mechanisms of fractured rock masses.

Coupling Mechanism of Saturated Concrete Subjected to Simultaneous Fatigue Loading and Freeze-thaw Cycles

The coupling mechanism of saturated concrete subjected to simultaneous 4-point fatigue loading and freeze-thaw cycles was, for the first time, experimentally studied by strain technology. The coupling strain, temperature strain and fatigue strain of concrete specimens were measured at the same time from one sample with stain analysis method and the relationship among these three kinds of strains was studied by fitting data to present coupling mechanism at macro level. The results showed that there was no interaction between fatigue strain and temperature strain and the coupling strain could be written by linear superposition of temperature strain and fatigue strain.

Effects of Freeze–thaw Cycles on Soil Mechanical and Physical Properties in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

Extreme freeze-thaw action occurs on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau due to its unique climate resulting from high elevation and cold temperature.This action causes damage to the surface soil structure, as soil erosion in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is dominated by freeze-thaw erosion.In this research,freezing–thawing process of the soil samples collected from the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau was carried out by laboratory experiments to determinate the volume variation of soil as well as physical and mechanical properties, such as porosity, granularity and uniaxial compressive strength, after the soil experiences various freeze–thaw cycles.Results show that cohesion and uniaxial compressive strength decreased as the volume and porosity of the soil increased after experiencing various freeze–thaw cycles, especially in the first six freeze–thaw cycles.Consequently, the physical and mechanical properties of the soil were altered.However, granularity and internal friction angle did not vary significantly with an increase in the freeze–thaw cycle.The structural damage among soil particles due to frozen water expansion was the major cause of changes in soil mechanical behavior in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau.

Review of the influence of freeze-thaw cycles on the physical and mechanical properties of soil

Seasonally frozen soil is a four-phase material and its physical-mechanical properties are more complex compared to the unfrozen soil. Its physical properties changes during the freeze-thaw process; repeated fieeze-thaw cycles change the characteristics of soil, which can render the soil from an unstable state to a new dynamic equilibrium state. The freezing process changes the structttre coupled between the soil particle arrangements, which will change the mechanical properties of the soil. The method of significance and interaction between different fac tors should be considered to measure the influence on the propties of soil under freeze-thaw cycles.

Significant Improvement of Mechanical Properties for Polyvinyl Alcohol Film Prepared from Freeze/Thaw Cycled Gel

The mechanical properties of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) films prepared by evaporating water from freeze/thaw cycled gel were investigated as a function of the number of freeze/thaw cycles. The maximum stress of the PVA film prepared by freeze/thaw cycling was larger than that prepared without the freeze/thaw cycle process. The largest maximum stress was 46.2 MPa for a film prepared with 10 freeze/thaw cycles, which was twice as large as that for a cast PVA film without freeze/thaw cycling (22.3 MPa). This is due to the formation of small crystallites during the freeze/thaw cycle process. Furthermore, when the film was annealed at 130°C, the maximum stress was as high as 181 MPa which was comparable to that for PVA films prepared using additives. The crystallinity is not the main factor that determines the maximum stress for either the non-annealed or annealed freeze/thaw cycled films, but the glass transition temperature is well correlated with the maximum stress, irrespective of the annealing process. This is due to the different molecular morphology;the non-annealed freeze/thaw cycled film consists of many small crystallites, but the annealed film consists of larger crystallites formed during the annealing process.

BEHAVIOR OF AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE AFTER FREEZE-THAW CYCLES

The experimental study of air-entrained concrete specimens subjected to different cycles of freeze-thaw was completed. The dynamic modulus of elasticity, weight loss, the cubic compressive strength, compressive strength, tensile strength and cleavage strength of air-entrained concrete were measured after 0, 100, 200, 300, 400 cycles of freeze-thaw. The experimental results showed that the dynamic modulus of elasticity and strength decreased as the freeze-thaw was repeated. The influences of freeze-thaw cycles on the mechanical properties, the dynamic modulus of elasticity and weight loss were analyzed according to the experimental results. It can serve as a reference for the maintenance, design and the life prediction of dams, hydraulic structures, offshore structures, concrete roads and bridges in northern cold regions.

Acoustic experimental study of two types of rock from the Tibetan Plateau under the condition of freeze-thaw cycles

Under the condition of freeze-thaw cycles, two types of rocks （granite and andesite）, used as slope protection for the Qinghai-Tibet Railway, were tested according to the special climatic conditions in the Tibetan Plateau, and their various damage processes in ap- pearance were carefully observed. Observation results show that damage of andesite was more serious than that of granite. Using an acoustic instrument, ultrasonic velocity was tested. The changing trends of velocity with the number of freeze-thaw cycles were analyzed, and the freeze-thaw cycle damaging the physical and mechanical properties of rocks can be seen. According to the changing trends of ultrasonic velocity with the number of freeze-thaw cycles, mechanical parameters of rocks, such as dynamic elasticity modulus, Poisson＇s ratio, and dynamic bulk modulus were analyzed. It is found that they all have declining trends as the number of fi＇eeze-thaw cycles increases, and in particular, when the cycle number reaches a certain extent, the Poisson＇s ratio of rocks begins to become negative.

Freeze–thaw resistance of eco–material stabilized loess

In the Loess Plateau in Northern China,repeated freeze–thaw(FT)cycles deteriorate the strength and structure of loess as a foundation soil,resulting in the instability or failure of supporting structure.Lignosulfonate is an eco–material,utilized as an effective and nontraditional stabilizer to improve the engineering properties of metastable soils.A series of laboratory tests,including unconfined compression tests,cyclic loading–unloading tests and scanning electron microscopy,on calcium lignosulfonate(CL)-and sodium lignosulfonate(SL)-stabilized loess were performed to investigate the stabilization effect,deterioration mechanisms of the FT cycles,and the resistance to FT cycles.Two traditional stabilizers,quicklime(QL)and sodium silicate(SS),were selected,and the engineering properties of QL-and SS-stabilized loess were compared with those of CL-and SLstabilized loess.The results showed that the strength values of CL-and SL-stabilized loess specimens decreased by 34.2%and 50%respectively,after 20 FT cycles,whereas those of the traditionally SS-and QL-stabilized specimens decreased by 85.3%and 82.87%,respectively.The elastic moduli of SL-and QL-stabilized loess specimens decreased by 22.1%and 92.0%,respectively.The mean energy dissipations of nontraditionally treated specimens also decreased significantly less than those of traditionally treated specimens.Overall,the results showed CL and SL had better stabilization effects on engineering properties of loess than QL and SS,and their stabilized loess specimens exhibited stronger resistance to FT cycles.The study findings demonstrated the significant potential of lignosulfonate for extensive application in cold loess areas.

Stress-Strain Relationship and Failure Criterion for Concrete after Freezing and Thawing Cycles

The research of the failure criterion and one-dimensional stress-strain relationship of deteriorated concrete were carried out. Based on the damage mechanics theory, the dsmage which reflects the alternation of internal state of material were introduced into the formula presented by Desayi and Krishman and the weighted twin-shear strength theory. As a nondestructive examination method in common use, the ultrasonic technique was adopted in the study, and the ultrasonic velocity was used to establish the damage variable. After that, the failure criterion and one-dimensional stress-strain relationship for deteriorated concrete were obtained. Eventually, tests were carried out to study the evolution laws on the damage. The results show that the more freezing and thawing cycles are, the more apparently the failure surface shrinks. Meanwhile, the comparison between theoretical data and experimental data verifies tile rationality of tile damage-based one-dimensional stress-strain relationship proposed.

Developing nacre-inspired laminate-reticular 2024Al/B_(4)C composites with high damage resistance by adjusting compositional wettability

To address the issue that B_(4)C ceramics are difficult to be wetted by aluminum metals in the composites,TiB_(2)was introduced via an in-situ reaction between TiH_(2)and B_(4)C to regulate their wettability and interfacial bonding.By pressure infiltration of the molten alloy into the freeze-cast porous ceramic skeleton,the 2024Al/B_(4)C-TiB_(2)composites with a laminate-reticular hierarchical structure were produced.Compared with 2024Al/B_(4)C composite,adding initial TiH_(2)improved the flexural strength and valid fracture toughness from(484±27)to(665±30)MPa and(19.3±1.5)to(32.7±1.8)MPa·m^(1/2),respectively.This exceptional damage resistance ability was derived from multiple extrinsic toughening mechanisms including uncracked-ligament bridging,crack branching,crack propagation and crack blunting,and more importantly,the fracture model transition from single to multiple crack propagation.This strategy opens a pathway for improving the wettability and interfacial bonding of Al/B_(4)C composites,and thus produces nacre-inspired materials with optimized damage tolerance.

Durability of Concrete under Multi-damage Action

Several different experiments,including freezing-thawing,freezing-thawing+drying-wetting,and drying-wetting,in salt solution and in water respectively,were designed to determine the durability of concrete.The durability damage features of concrete in the above experiments were studied.It is demonstrated that the damage extent of concrete under freezing-thawing and freezing-thawing+drying-wetting in salt solution is larger than that in water.Thus,freezing-thawing and freezing-thawing+drying-wetting in salt solution are stricter and more effective methods to evaluate the durability of concrete in salt-existing environment in cold regions.The damage extent of concrete under freezing-thawing+drying-wetting shows an ultra-superposition effect.The order of concrete durability deterioration degree in these experiments is determined.It shows that effects of multi-damage factors are greater than those of single-damage factor.

Processes and mechanisms of multi-collapse of loess roads in seasonally frozen ground regions: A review

Usually, the collapsible loess widely distributed across the world can serve as a type of foundation soil that meets its strength requirement after dense compaction and elimination of collapsibility. However, many problems such as cracks and differential settlement still occur in loess roads in the seasonally frozen ground regions after several years of op- eration. Many studies have demonstrated that these secondary or multiple collapses primarily result from the repeated freezing-thawing, wetting-drying, and salinization-desalinization cycles. Therefore, we conducted a research program to （1） monitor the in-situ ground temperatures and water content in certain loess roads to understand their changes, （2） study the effects of freezing-thawing, wetting-drying, and salinization-desalinization cycles on geotechnical properties and micro-fabrics of compacted loess in the laboratory, and （3） develop mitigative measures and examine their engineered effectiveness, i.e., their thermal insulating and water-proofing effects in field and laboratory tests. Our results and advances are reviewed and some further research needs are proposed. These findings more clearly explain the processes and mechanisms of secondary and multiple collapse of loess roads. We also offer references for further study of the weakening mechanisms of similar structural soils.

Advances in studies on concrete durability and countermeasures against freezing-thawing effects

This paper is a meta-analysis of recent domestic and foreign research on freezing-thawing effects on concrete durability. The main theories on the mechanisms of freeze-thaw damage to concrete are introduced： the hydrostatic pressure theory, the osmotic pressure theory, the critical water saturation degree theory, the dual mechanism theory, and the micro-ice-crystal lens model theory. The influence laws of freezing-thawing on the mechanical properties of concrete are summarized, and countermeasures to improve concrete durability in freezing-thawing circumstances are presented. This work provides valuable references for future engineering constructions in cold regions.

Study on Life Prediction Model of Concrete Dam Based on Dry Zoning and Damage Theory

Concrete dam construction, reservoir impoundment and operation are a complicated and long-term process. During the course of this process dam suffers lots of factors including changing temperature, humidity, deformation, loads and restraints around dam. With time going by, damage to darn concrete happens. As a result, the strength, stiffness and resistance of concrete will decrease accompanying with damage accumulation and dam structure performance behavior and lifetime will be shorten or even destructed. At present, most of researches focus on concrete material itself and seldom consider effects of water content for concrete structures. That is apparently inconsistent with the actual situation. In engineering practice, it is urgently needed to assess existing dam structure damage state considering dry zoning in concrete. Through taking C30 dam concrete as standard specimen, alternate freezing and thawing tests are undertaken and changing law of time-dependent concrete damage state resulting in alternate wetting and drying has been studied in this paper. And then calculation formulas of time-dependent concrete damage evolution process considering alternate wetting and drying under condition of freeze-thaw cycle tests are established. Combining with four parameters Hsieh-Ting-Chen （ H -T-C ） model, some relevant factors or parameters are obtained through indoor testing and life prediction model of concrete dam based on dry zoning and damage theory is put forward which provides technical supports for dam safety evaluation and management of sustainable development.

LNG储罐混凝土超低温冻融损伤演化规律

为明确泄漏工况下液化天然气(LNG)储罐混凝土超低温冻融损伤演化规律,进行了C50混凝土的超低温冻融试验,并与快速冻融试验结果进行对比,通过相对动弹性模量来评估LNG储罐混凝土的冻融损伤累积.结果表明:快速冻融试验无法真实反映LNG储罐混凝土在超低温冻融条件下的损伤演化规律;基于Weibull分布理论,建立了实验室模拟冻融循环条件与储罐泄漏工况下混凝土冻融损伤的等效关联,为后续相关研究提供理论基础.

不同循环模式下透水混凝土性能演变规律及损伤机制

为探讨水对透水混凝土(PC)路面的影响,研究了干湿、冻融和干湿-冻融3种循环模式下PC性能的演化方程,揭示了单因素和双因素作用下PC的损伤机制.结果表明:添加玄武岩纤维(BF)虽然改变了PC的孔隙结构和初始性能,但并未影响损伤机制;冻融循环导致PC路面次生裂缝数量呈指数增长,与干湿循环作用下的性能演变规律不同;干湿循环在PC损伤前期引起孔隙壁表面物质溶解、流失和边缘卷曲剥离,冻融循环在PC损伤后期导致裂缝产生和扩展,造成颗粒间作用力断裂;在干湿-冻融循环耦合作用下PC性能指标降低程度超过干湿和冻融循环单因素作用结果之和.

多次冻融循环后成品异体肌腱性能的变化

背景:用于临床移植的异体肌腱在应用前需进行相应处理,在处理成品至正式使用期间一般会面临多周期冻融循环的情况,目前针对成品异体肌腱经历多周期冻融循环后的性能变化还未见相关报道。目的:探究异体肌腱在经历多周期冻融循环后的力学性能及成分变化。方法:取经法规规定工艺处理后的成品异体肌腱,在-40℃(或-80℃)条件下分别冻融循环3,6,10次,对相应条件冻融后的异体肌腱进行力学实验及DNA、硫酸糖胺聚糖、羟脯氨酸含量和总蛋白含量检测。结果与结论:①在-40℃条件下冷冻保存,冻融循环3,6,10次组之间的最大载荷、最大载荷伸长率、抗拉强度和弹性模量比较差异均无显著性意义(P>0.05);在-80℃条件下冷冻储存,冻融循环3,6,10次组之间的最大载荷、最大载荷伸长率比较差异无显著性意义(P>0.05),冻融循环3次组抗拉强度高于冻融循环6,10次组(P<0.05),冻融循环3次组弹性模量高于冻融循环10次组(P<0.05);②在-40℃(或-80℃)条件下冷冻保存,冻融次数不影响异体肌腱中DNA、羟脯氨酸、总蛋白和硫酸糖胺聚糖含量;③结果表明,在-40℃储存时,10次以内冻融循环不影响异体肌腱的性能;而在-80℃储存时,异体肌腱冻融循环次数应控制在6次以内。

工业废渣改良水泥土力学及抗冻性能研究

通过正交试验设计粉煤灰-脱硫石膏复合改良水泥土配合比,并研究其力学性能和抗冻性能。结果表明:水泥掺量对水泥土力学强度影响最大,粉煤灰掺量次之,建议最佳配合比为水泥掺量16%、脱硫石膏掺量6%、粉煤灰掺量12%;复合土力学强度随养生龄期增加逐渐增长,28天抗压强度约为极限抗压强度的74.4%;复合土力学强度随含水率增加呈线性降低,含水率增加1.0%,抗压强度和劈裂强度分别平均降低8.5%、8.4%;复合土抗冻性能优于普通水泥土,随冻融次数增加,复合土抗压强度先增大后减小,冻融3次的抗压强度较冻融前平均提高6.4%,冻融20次的残留强度比平均为82.0%。

Rock mechanical properties of coal in cryogenic condition

Liquid nitrogen(LN2)fracturing is a kind of non-aqueous fracturing technology,which is expected to provide a new and efficient way for coalbed methane(CBM)development.The mechanical properties of coal under LN_(2) freezing are very important for studying the mechanism of LN2 fracturing.However,most of the current research is limited to studying mechanical properties of rocks after being frozen by LN2 and returned to room temperature.In this paper,the effect of LN2 freezing on the mechanical properties of coal was studied.Uniaxial strength tests and Brazil tests were carried out for dry and water-saturated coal samples with different types and bedding directions.In addition,standard electron microscopy(standard SEM)and cryo-electron microscopy(Cryo-SEM)were used to compare the fracture morphology of coal samples at room temperature and LN_(2) temperature.The results showed that LN_(2) freezing can damage and improve the mechanical properties of coal simultaneously.The strength of saturated coal under freezing is higher than that of dry coal,and the filling of ice can enhance the mechanical strength of coal.In addition,the mechanical properties of coal with higher porosity are enhanced more than that of coal with lower porosity under LN_(2) freezing.The main findings of this study are the keys to the research of LN_(2) fracturing mechanisms in CBM reservoirs.