Anisotropic swelling pressures of compacted GMZ bentonite infiltrated with salt solutions

In the high-level radioactive waste(HLW)deep geological repository,bentonite is compacted uniaxially,and then arranged vertically in engineered barriers.The assembly scheme induces the initial anisotropy,and with hydration,it develops more evidently under chemical conditions.To investigate the anisotropic swelling of compacted Gaomiaozi(GMZ)bentonite and the further response to saline effects,a series of constant-volume swelling pressure tests were performed.Results showed that dry density enhanced the bentonite swelling and raised the final anisotropy,whereas saline inhibited the bentonite swelling but still promoted the final anisotropy.The final anisotropy coefficient(ratio of radial to axial pressure)obeyed the Boltzmann sigmoid attenuation function,decreasing with concentration and dry density,converging to a minimum value of 0.76.The staged evolution of anisotropy coefficient was discovered,that saline inhibited the rise of the anisotropy coefficient(Dd)in the isotropic process greater than the valley(d1)in the anisotropic process,leading to the final anisotropy increasing.The isotropic stage amplified the impact of soil structure rearrangement on the macro-swelling pressure values.Thus,a new method for predicting swelling pressures of compacted bentonite was proposed,by expanding the equations of Gouy-Chapman theory with a dissipative wedge term.An evolutionary function was constructed,revealing the correlation between the occurrence time and the pressure value due to the structure rearrangement and the former crystalline swelling.Accordingly,a design reference for dry density was given,based on the chemical conditions around the pre-site in Beishan,China.The anisotropy promoted by saline would cause a greater drop of radial pressure,making the previous threshold on axial swelling fail.

Effect of shaking time, ionic strength, temperature and pH value on desorption of Cr(III) adsorbed onto GMZ bentonite

The Cr（III） desorption experiments of Gaomiaozi （GMZ） bentonite in aqueous solutions were performed. The variables affecting the desorption behaviors, such as contact time, concentration of the desorbent, pH value of the solution, temperature and desorption isotherms, were investigated by the batch experiments. The results show that the adsorbed Cr（III） on GMZ bentonite can be easily extracted by the desorbent. Kinetics examination shows that desorption is slower than adsorption, and the desorption rate increases with time and reaches the equilibrium after 3 h. The final desorption ratios of Cr（III） are 89.4%, 56.5%and 77.2%in the desorption solution with 0.1 mol/L HCl, 1 mol/L NaCl, and 1 mol/L CaCl2, respectively, and the concentration can promote the desorption progress. Furthermore, the results of successive regeneration cycles indicate that the bentonite has a good regeneration ability and reusability. The pH value is an important factor in the Cr（III） desorption from the GMZ bentonite. The results of adsorption and desorption isotherms show that both adsorption and desorption isotherms are consistent with the Freundlich equation. The comparison of adsorption and desorption isotherms implies that the adsorption/desorption hysteresis is negligible and the transport of Cr（III） in bentonite can be described by a reversible adsorption process.

Determination of full-scale pore size distribution of Gaomiaozi bentonite and its permeability prediction

Gaomiaozi(GMZ)bentonite is a potential buffer/backfill material for a deep geological disposal of highlevel radioactive waste.It has a wide pore size distribution(PSD)with sizes ranging from several nanometers to more than one hundred microns.Thus,properly characterizing the pore structures of GMZ bentonite is a challenging issue.In this study,pressure-controlled porosimetry(PCP),ratecontrolled porosimetry(RCP),and scanning electron microscopy(SEM)were used to investigate the PSD of GMZ bentonite,The results indicate that each method has its limitation,and a combined use of PCP and RCP is suitable to obtain the full-scale PSD of GMZ bentonite.Moreover,we also compared the full-scale PSD with nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR)result.It is found that there is no significant difference in the range of PSD characterization between NMR and mercury intrusion method(PCP and RCP).However,in a ce rtain range,the detection accuracy of NMR is higher than that of mercury injection method.Finally,permeability prediction based on PCP and SEM data was conducted,and both of the two methods were found to be able to predict the permeability.The combined method is effective to obtain the full-scale PSD of GMZ bentonite,which is the key to estimation of the sealing ability of bentonite buffer.

Influence of temperature on swelling deformation characteristic of compacted GMZ bentonite-sand mixtures

Laboratory swelling deformation tests were carried out on compacted GMZ bentonite and bentonite-sand mixtures with 30%and 50%sand contents at 20,40,60,80 and 90°C with infiltration of distilled water.Influence of temperature,initial dry density,and quartz sand content on the swelling deformation characteristic of compacted bentonite specimens was analyzed.Results indicate that the swelling deformation process is accelerated,and the maximum swelling strain increases with the increase in temperature,while the maximum swelling strain tends to be stable with increasing temperature.In the meantime,the temperature effects depend on both of the sand content and the initial dry density of the specimens,the increases of the maximum swelling strain induced by increasing temperature,are enlarged by increasing sand content or initial dry density.Adding of quartz sand to bentonite not only influences the integrality of bentonite specimen,but also increase the microfissuring in area on quartz sand,which are advantageous to the heat transfer,leading to the increase of swelling deformation capacity of the specimen.The increased dry density relatively increases the bentonite content,so the swelling property is enhanced.However,no change on mineral composition of bentonite was observed when temperature was changed from 20 to 90°C.

Soil-water characteristics of Gaomiaozi bentonite by vapour equilibrium technique

Soil-water characteristics of Gaomiaozi(GMZ)Ca-bentonite at high suctions(3–287MPa)are measured by vapour equilibrium technique.The soil-water retention curve(SWRC)of samples with the same initial compaction states is obtained in drying and wetting process.At high suctions,the hysteresis behaviour is not obvious in relationship between water content and suction,while the opposite holds between degree of saturation and suction.The suction variation can change its water retention behaviour and void ratio.Moreover,changes of void ratio can bring about changes in degree of saturation.Therefore,the total change in degree of saturation includes changes caused by suction and that by void ratio.In the space of degree of saturation and suction,the SWRC at constant void ratio shifts to the direction of higher suctions with decreasing void ratio.However,the relationship between water content and suction is less affected by changes of void ratio.The degree of saturation decreases approximately linearly with increasing void ratio at a constant suction.Moreover,the slope of the line decreases with increasing suction and they show an approximately linear relationship in semi-logarithmical scale.From this linear relationship,the variation of degree of saturation caused by the change in void ratio can be obtained.Correspondingly,SWRC at a constant void ratio can be determined from SWRC at different void ratios.

Effects of synthetic site water on bentonite-concrete system for a potential nuclear waste repository

In high-level nuclear waste(HLW)repositories,concrete and compacted bentonite are designed to be employed as buffer materials,which may raise a problem of interactions between concrete and bentonite.These interactions would lead to mineralogy transformation and buffer performance decay of bentonite under the near field environment conditions in a repository.A small-scale experimental setup was established to simulate the concrete-bentonite-site water interaction system from a potential nuclear waste repository in China.Three types of mortars were prepared to correspond to the concrete at different degradation states.The results permit the determination of the following:(1)The macroproperties of Gaomiaozi(GMZ)bentonite(e.g.swelling pressure,permeability,the final dry density,and water content of reacted samples);(2)The composition evolution of fluids from the synthetic site water-concrete-bentonite interaction systems;(3)The sample characterization including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy(FTIR)and X-ray powder diffraction(XRD).Under the infiltration of the synthesis Beishan site water(BSW),the swelling pressure of bentonite decreases slowly with time after reaching its second swelling peak.The flux decreases with time during the infiltrations,and it tends to be stable after more than 120 d.Due to the cation exchange reactions in the BSW-concrete-bentonite systems,the divalent cations(Ca and Mg)were consumed,and the monovalent cations(Na and K)were released.The dissolution of minerals in the bentonite such as albite causes Si increasing in the pore water.It was concluded that the hydro-mechanical property degradation of bentonite takes place when it comes into contact with concrete mortar,even under low-pH groundwater conditions.The soil dispersion,the uneven water content,and the uneven dry density in bentonite samples may partly contribute to the swelling decay of bentonite.Therefore,the direct contact with concrete has an obvious effect on the performance of bentonite.

Swelling characteristics of Gaomiaozi bentonite and its prediction

Gaomiaozi （GMZ） bentonite has been chosen as a possible matrix material of buffers/backfills in the deep geological disposal to isolate the high-level radioactive waste （HLRW） in China. In the Gaomiaozi deposit area, calcium bentonite in the near surface zone and sodium bentonite in the deeper zone are observed. The swelling characteristics of GMZ sodium and calcium bentonites and their mixtures with sand wetted with distilled water were studied in the present work. The test results show that the relationship be- tween the void ratio and swelling pressure of compacted GMZ bentonite-sand mixtures at full saturation is independent of the initial conditions such as the initial dry density and water content, hut dependent on the ratio of bentonite to sand. An empirical method was accordingly proposed allowing the prediction of the swelling deformation and swelling pressure with different initial densities and bentonite-sand ratios when in saturated conditions. Finally, the swelling capacities of GMZ Na- and Ca-bentonites and Kunigel Na-bentonite are compared.

Quantitative two/three-dimensional spatial characterization and fluid transport prediction of macro/micropores in Gaomiaozi bentonite

The sealing performance of a bentonite barrier is highly dependent on its seepage characteristics, which are directly related to the characteristics of its pore structure. Based on scanning electron microscopy(SEM) and focused ion beam-SEM(FIB-SEM), the pore structure of bentonite was characterized at different scales. First, a reasonable gray threshold was determined through back analysis, and the image was binarized based on the threshold. In addition, binary images were used to analyze bentonite’s pore structure(porosity and pore size distribution). Furthermore, the effects of different algorithms on the pore structure characterization were evaluated. Then, permeability calculations were performed based on the previous pore structure characteristics and a modified permeability prediction model. For permeability prediction based on the three-dimensional model, the effect of pore tortuosity was also considered. Finally, the accuracy of numerical calculations was verified by conducting macroscopic gas and alcohol permeability experiments. This approach provides a better understanding of the microscale mechanism of gas transport in bentonite and the importance of pore structures at different scales in determining its seepage characteristics.

Numerical thermo-hydro-mechanical modeling of compacted bentonite in China-mock-up test for deep geological disposal

The China-mock-up test is to evaluate the performance of the compacted Gaomiaozi （GMZ） bentonite under coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical （THM） conditions in deep geological disposal. A numerical study of the test is conducted in this paper. The principal THM characteristics of the bentonite are presented at first. A THM model is then presented to tackle the complex coupling behavior of the bentonite. The model of Alonso-Gens is incorporated to reproduce the mechanical behavior of the bentonite under unsaturated conditions. With the proposed model, numerical simulations of the China-mock-up test are carried out by using the code of LAGAMINE. The time variations associated with the temperature, degree of saturation, suction and swelling pressure of the compacted bentonite are studied. The results suggest that the proposed model is able to reproduce the mechanical behavior of the bentonite, and to predict moisture motion under coupled THM conditions.

高压实高庙子膨润土GMZ01的膨胀力特征

高放废物深地质处置中,缓冲/回填材料系统起着工程屏障、水力学屏障、化学屏障、传导和散失放射性废物衰变热等重要作用,是高放废物地质处置库长期安全性和稳定性的有效保障。前人研究表明,膨润土是理想的缓冲/回填材料。在归纳总结压实膨润土膨胀力的室内试验研究成果的基础上,采用恒体积试验法研究高压实高庙子膨润土GMZ01的膨胀力特性,该膨润土已经被确定为我国高放废物地质处置库首选缓冲材料。结果表明,高压实高庙子膨润土GMZ01膨胀力随时间的变化曲线是一条渐近线,而时间/膨胀力与时间之间存在很好的线性关系;膨胀力发展过程曲线与吸水量曲线具有明显的阶段性特征;高压实高庙子膨润土的膨胀力和干密度之间存在指数关系,干密度是影响膨胀力的一项重要的因素。所取得的膨胀力特性成果,对于高庙子膨润土膨胀性能的正确判定具有非常重要的意义。

盐碱演化环境下高压实GMZ膨润土膨胀变形特性

高放射性废物深地质处置库中,混凝土材料在地下水和辐射热的长期耦合作用下,不断衰解生成高碱性物质,进而影响高压实膨润土的膨胀变形特性,危及处置库运行安全。针对中国北山处置场地下水特征对缓冲/回填材料高压实高庙子(GMZ)膨润土变形特性的影响,分别配制北山地下水(BSW)、早期混凝土衰解液(YCW)和后期混凝土衰解液(ECW),开展了盐碱演化环境下高压实GMZ膨润土的一维膨胀变形试验,获取了初试干密度(1.50,1.60,1.70,1.80 g/cm^(3))和上覆荷载(0.1,0.2,0.4 MPa)对膨润土变形的影响规律。结果表明:随着BSW、YCW和ECW 3种溶液相继入渗,高压实膨润土的稳定膨胀变形率不断增加,但增加值逐渐减小;当YCW和ECW入渗时,稳定膨胀变形率的增加值随干密度增加而减小,随荷载增大而减小。基于压汞试验结果,阐明了盐碱演化环境下高压实膨润土持续膨胀的微观机理。研究成果可为中国处置库缓冲/回填材料的选择和工程屏障设计提供依据。

化−力耦合作用下石墨烯改性GMZ膨润土的膨胀变形特性

针对作为我国高放射性废物处置库首选缓冲/回填材料的高庙子(GMZ)膨润土,通过掺入石墨烯进行物理改性以改善其膨胀性能;采用一维膨胀变形试验仪,研究不同荷载与不同NaCl浓度作用下膨润土/石墨烯混合物的膨胀变形规律;并对试验结束后的试样进行扫描电镜测试,分析化−力耦合作用下GMZ膨润土/石墨烯混合物的膨胀变形机理。研究结果表明:随着石墨烯质量分数的增加,膨润土/石墨烯混合物的膨胀变形率呈抛物线型下降,且NaCl浓度对膨胀变形率的影响也逐渐减小,石墨烯在混合物中主要起到填充和联结的作用;随着NaCl浓度增大,混合物的膨胀变形率呈指数型下降,石墨烯质量分数和上覆荷载对膨胀变形率的影响也逐渐减小;随着上覆荷载增大,混合物的膨胀变形率逐渐下降,且NaCl浓度对膨胀变形率的影响也逐渐减小,在双对数坐标系下,混合物的蒙脱石孔隙比与上覆荷载呈现良好的线性关系。

前期化学循环作用下石墨烯改性GMZ膨润土持水特性

高放射性废物深地质处置中,缓冲/回填材料在含盐地下水入渗及衰变热耦合作用下,可能遭受以盐化-淡化过程为主要形式的化学循环作用,从而影响其持水特性。针对中国首选缓冲/回填材料GMZ膨润土,根据北山预选处置场地下水主要离子为Na+和Cl-,研究了前期NaCl溶液循环作用下石墨烯改性GMZ膨润土的持水特性。结果表明,当吸力低于150 MPa时,随前期化学循环次数增加,石墨烯改性膨润土的持水性能不断提升,而干密度对持水性的影响逐渐弱化;当吸力超过150 MPa时,持水性能受前期化学循环影响不明显。石墨烯改性膨润土的持水曲线具有明显回滞性,但回滞幅度随前期化学循环次数增加而逐渐衰减。化学循环次数增加使水分滞留土体内部不易排出,因而进气值和残余饱和度不断增大、过渡段斜率逐渐趋缓。在前期化学循环过程中,含盐量不断累积,循环次数越多,渗透吸力越大,对持水性能的影响越显著。

高庙子膨润土胶体释放影响因素试验研究

高放废物处置库中缓冲回填材料膨润土与地下水相互作用时会释放出胶体,而胶体会直接影响放射性核素的迁移行为,因此,膨润土遇水释放胶体研究是处置库系统安全评价的重要内容之一。本文以高庙子膨润土为研究对象,通过室内试验,获得了离子种类、离子强度、pH、温度与浊度的关系曲线,并对这些因素影响胶体释放的机理进行了分析。结果表明:阳离子种类抑制膨润土释放胶体排序依次为Li^(+)<Na^(+)<K^(+)<NH_(4)^(+)<Zn^(2+)<Mg^(2+)<H+<Ca^(2+);阴离子中除OH-对胶体释放有显著促进作用外,其他阴离子基本对胶体释放影响不大;溶液离子强度越大,抑制膨润土胶体释放的能力越强;膨润土在中性条件下更容易释放胶体;在20~50℃之间,升高温度有利于膨润土胶体的释放。

工程尺度缓冲材料热-水-力多场耦合数值模拟研究

缓冲材料作为填充在废物罐与地质体之间重要的人工屏障,对高放废物处置库的长期安全至关重要。以工程尺度缓冲材料热-水-力多场耦合大型模型试验系统(China-Mock-up)为研究对象,采用有限元数值模拟软件LAGAMINE,考虑试验过程中复杂的边界条件与材料属性,实现了近5 a试验数据的定量模拟。模拟结果可准确预测试验系统内部不同特征点温度随室温周期性波动及线性增长这一动态变化规律;能够较好反映不同特征点相对湿度随时间的行为演化趋势,在加热器附近区域呈现出先干燥后饱和的现象,远离加热器区域则逐渐增大;模拟的总应力与实测试验数据间表现较好地一致性,能够反映试验台架内部不同特征点的总应力随时间逐渐增大这一演化过程。揭示了多场耦合条件下缓冲材料(膨润土)温度、湿度及应力的相互作用关系,为深入认识处置库环境下缓冲材料行为演化特征提供了重要的参考依据。

不同品位高庙子膨润土用于钻井泥浆的试验研究

钻井泥浆是膨润土应用占比较大的市场之一,通过试验测试,研究不同品位高庙子膨润土用于钻井泥浆的可行性,以便充分开发和利用高庙子膨润土矿床。研究结果表明:不同位置开采的未经处理的高庙子天然钠基膨润土不符合钻井泥浆的使用性能要求,必须对其进行增效处理;通过添加增效剂羧甲基纤维素(CMC),发现高庙子天然钠基膨润土在添加2%的增效剂后,蒙脱石含量为70%左右的膨润土均达到国家标准规范要求的钻井级膨润土的要求。但应综合考虑天然钠基膨润土的开采成本和增效剂的成本,筛选出既满足技术要求,又能控制成本的样品类型。

膨润土组合试样的热传导和水分迁移规律试验研究

缓冲材料砌块接缝作为高放废物处置库工程屏障系统中潜在的薄弱部位必须被深入研究。为此,利用研制的试验装置测定了进水前与进水后两种情况下高庙子(GMZ)膨润土组合试样不同位置处的温度和体积含水量随时间的演化规律,并根据试验结果得到了组合试样接缝愈合后的热传导系数和水力传导系数。试验结果表明膨润土组合试样内部温度的变化主要受温度边界的影响,而其内部水分的变化对其影响较小。在短时间内,加载水力边界条件仅使得靠近水力边界处的土体的体积含水量大幅度增加,而对其它位置影响较小。由于受到温度边界的影响,靠近温度边界位置处的土体的体积含水量随时间逐渐降低。愈合后接缝位置的导热性能和渗透性能够满足高放废物处置库工程屏障的要求。

Effect of dry density on ^(125)I diffusion in GMZ bentonite

Gaomiaozi （GMZ） bentonite is regarded as the favorable candidate backfilling material for a potential repository in China. It is important to understand the diffusion behavior of ^125I in GMZ bentonite and compare the diffusion behavior in GMZ and other types of bentonite like MX-80, Avonlea, etc. Therefore, through- and out-diffusion experiments were conducted to obtain the effective diffusion coefficient （De） and distribution coefficient （Kd）. A computer code named Fitting for diffusion coefficient （FDP） was used for the experimental data processing and theoretical modeling. At the dry density of GMZ bentonite from 1600-2000 kg/m^3, the De values of ^125I were （2.4-20.4）×10 ^-12 m^2/s and Ka values were constants. At dry density above 1800 kg/m^3, the diffusion behaviors were almost the same, indicating that the anion exclusion was ineffective. Out-diffusion results showed that the species of ^125I may be changed during the diffusion processing. It was probably caused by some organic mat- ters or reducing substances in GMZ bentonite. Since the main composition of bentonite is montmorillonite, similar diffusion parameters were obtained in GMZ and other types of bentonite. The relationship of DE and accessible porosity （εacc） could be described by Archie＇s law with exponent n = 1.2-2.8 for ^125I diffusion in bentonite, whereas n = 2.0 in GMZ bentonite. Fur- thermore, bentonite with the dry density of 1800 kg/m^3 was proposed as the backfilling materials used in the construction of high level radioactivity waste repository.

Th(Ⅳ)在高庙子膨润土上的吸附行为

采用静态批式法研究了Th(Ⅳ)在高庙子膨润土上的吸附行为。探讨了接触时间、pH、离子强度、固液比以及腐殖酸对吸附的影响。测定了293.15 K下的吸附等温线。实验结果表明,pH和离子强度对Th(Ⅳ)吸附的影响很大,腐殖酸在低pH下促进Th(Ⅳ)在高庙子膨润土上的吸附,而在高pH下几乎没有影响;Th(Ⅳ)在高庙子膨润土上的吸附主要通过表面络合和离子交换进行;Langmuir方程可以很好的拟合吸附等温线。

双电层理论与高庙子膨润土的体变特征

黏性土中土体颗粒(矿物颗粒)带有负电荷,周围存在电场。在静电引力与布朗运动(热运动)作用下,紧邻土体颗粒表面处静电引力最强,水化离子和极性分子牢牢地被吸附在颗粒表面附近形成固定层。由固定层向外,静电引力逐渐减小,水化离子和极性分子的活动性逐渐增大,形成扩散层。固定层和扩散层中的阳离子(反离子层)与土粒表面负电荷共同构成双电层。根据双电层理论,当给定两个黏土片层之间的距离时,渗透压力可以由两个片层中轴线处的离子浓度来求取。同样,对于给定的渗透压力和中轴线处的离子浓度,便可以确定两个片层之间的距离。采用渗析法吸力控制技术与压汞仪法(MIP)微观结构试验手段,研究了低吸力范围内、自由膨胀条件下高压实高庙子膨润土的土水特性与体变特征,同时采用双电层理论估算了高庙子膨润土水化过程中的自由膨胀量,并将估算值与试验实测值进行了对比分析。在使用孔率计法试验结果求取试样孔隙比时考虑了压汞仪出力能力影响,采用线性延伸方法估算了残余孔隙量。研究结果显示,低吸力范围内,由双电层理论,估算的高压实高庙子膨润土的自由体积膨胀量与试验数据吻合较好,但随着吸力的进一步减小,两者之间的误差有增大的趋势,文中对出现这一偏差的原因进行了分析探讨。