Urban Impact on Landfalling Tropical Cyclone Precipitation:A Numerical Study of Typhoon Rumbia(2018)

Coastal urban areas are prone to serious disasters caused by landfalling tropical cyclones(TCs). Despite the crucial role of urban forcing in precipitation, how fine-scale urban features impact landfalling TC precipitation remains poorly understood. In this study, high-resolution ensemble simulations of Typhoon Rumbia(2018), which crossed the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration, were conducted to analyze the potential urban impact on TC precipitation. Results show that the inner-core rainfall of Rumbia is strengthened by approximately 10% due to the urban impact near the landfall,whereas minor differences in outer-core rainfall are found when the urban impact is excluded. Further diagnostic analyses indicate that low-level upward motion is crucial for precipitation evolution, as both co-vary during landfall. Moreover, the frictionally induced upward motion plays a decisive role in enhancing the rainfall when the urban impacts are included.Urban surface friction can decelerate the tangential wind and therefore destroy the gradient balance and strengthen the radial wind within the boundary layer and thus can enhance upward motion. This study demonstrates that urban surface friction and related physical processes make the most significant contribution to landfalling TC rainfall enhancement.

An Overview of Research and Forecasting on Rainfall Associated with Landfalling Tropical Cyclones

The ability to forecast heavy rainfall associated with landfalling tropical cyclones （LTCs） can be improved with a better understanding of the mechanism of rainfall rates and distributions of LTCs. Research in the area of LTCs has shown that associated heavy rainfall is related closely to mechanisms such as moisture transport, extratropical transition （ET）, interaction with monsoon surge, land surface processes or topographic effects, mesoscale convective system activities within the LTC, and boundary layer energy transfer etc.. LTCs interacting with environmental weather systems, especially the westerly trough and mei-yu front, could change the rainfall rate and distribution associated with these mid-latitude weather systems. Recently improved technologies have contributed to advancements within the areas of quantitative precipitation estimation （QPE） and quantitative precipitation forecasting （QPF）. More specifically, progress has been due primarily to remote sensing observations and mesoscale numerical models which incorporate advanced assimilation techniques. Such progress may provide the tools necessary to improve rainfall forecasting techniques associated with LTCs in the future.

Impact of the Monsoonal Surge on Extreme Rainfall of Landfalling Tropical Cyclones

A comparative analysis and quantitative diagnosis has been conducted of extreme rainfall associated with landfalling tropical cyclones(ERLTC)and non-extreme rainfall(NERLTC)using the dynamic composite analysis method.Reanalysis data and the tropical cyclone precipitation dataset derived from the objective synoptic analysis technique were used.Results show that the vertically integrated water vapor transport(Q_(vt))during the ERLTC is significantly higher than that during the NERLTC.The Q_(vt)reaches a peak 1−2 days before the occurrence of the ERLTC and then decreases rapidly.There is a stronger convergence for both the Q_(vt)and the horizontal wind field during the ERLTC.The Q_(vt)convergence and the wind field convergence are mainly confined to the lower troposphere.The water vapor budget on the four boundaries of the tropical cyclone indicates that water vapor is input through all four boundaries before the occurrence of the ERLTC,whereas water vapor is output continuously from the northern boundary before the occurrence of the NERLTC.The water vapor inflow on both the western and southern boundaries of the ERLTC exceeds that during the NERLTC,mainly as a result of the different intensities of the southwest monsoonal surge in the surrounding environmental field.Within the background of the East Asian summer monsoon,the low-level jet accompanying the southwest monsoonal surge can increase the inflow of water vapor at both the western and southern boundaries during the ERLTC and therefore could enhance the convergence of the horizontal wind field and the water vapor flux,thereby resulting in the ERLTC.On the other hand,the southwest monsoonal surge decreases the zonal mean steering flow,which leads to a slower translation speed for the tropical cyclone associated with the ERLTC.Furthermore,a dynamic monsoon surge index(DMSI)defined here can be simply linked with the ERLTC and could be used as a new predictor for future operational forecasting of ERLTC.

A COMPOSITE STUDY OF RAINFALL ASYMMETRY OF TROPICAL CYCLONES AFTER MAKING LANDFALL IN GUANGDONG PROVINCE

Based on observed rainfall data, this study makes a composite analysis of rainfall asymmetry in tropical cyclones(TCs) after making landfall in Guangdong province(GD) during 1998—2015. There are 3.0 TCs per year on average making landfall in GD and west of GD(WGD) has the most landfall TCs. Most of TCs make landfall in June,July, August, and September at the intensities of TY, STS, and TS. On average, there is more rainfall in the southwest quadrant of TC in CGD(center of GD), WGD, and GD as a whole, and the maximum rainfall is located in the southwest near the TC center. The mean TC rainfall in the east of GD(EGD) leans to the eastern side of TC. The TC rainfall distributions in June, July, August, and September all lean to the southwest quadrant and the maximum rainfall is located in the southwest near the TC center. The same features are found in the mean rainfall of TD, TS, STS, TY,and STY. The maximum rainfall is mainly in the downshear of vertical wind shear. Vertical wind shear is probably the dominate factor that determines asymmetric rainfall distribution of TCs in GD. Storm motion has little connection with TC rainfall asymmetry in GD.

APPLICATION OF GENERALIZED CONVECTIVE VORTICITY VECTOR IN A RAINFALL PROCESS CAUSED BY A LANDFALLING TROPICAL DEPRESSION

A heavy rainfall process, which occurred in Shanghai during 5-6 August, 2001 from a landfalling tropical depression (TD),is examined with a control numerical experiment based on MM5 model. It is found that the contours of generalized equivalent potential temperature (θ*) are almost vertical with respect to horizontal surfaces near the TD center and more densely distributed than those of equivalent potential temperature (θe).Because the atmosphere is non-uniformly saturated in reality, θ* takes the place of θe in the definition of convective vorticity vector (CVV) so that a new vector, namely the generalized convective vorticity vector (CVV*), is applied in this study. Since CVV* can reflect both the secondary circulation and the variation of horizontal moist baroclinicity, the vertical integration of vertical component of CVV* is found, in this study, to represent the rainfall areas in the TD case better than potential vorticity (PV), moist potential vorticity (MPV), generalized moist potential vorticity (Pm), and CVV, with high-value area of CVV* corresponding to heavy-rainfall area. Moreover, the analysis from CVV* implies that the Hangzhou Bay might play an important role in the heavy rain process. A sensitivity experiment without the Hangzhou Bay is then designed and compared with the control run. It is found that the CVV* becomes weaker than that in the control run, implying that the elimination of Hangzhou Bay results in reduced rainfall. Further analyses show that the Hangzhou Bay provides sufficient water vapor and surface heat flux to the TD system, which is very important to the genesis and development of mesoscale cloud clusters around the TD and the associated heavy rainfall.

RECENT ADVANCES IN RESEARCH AND FORECASTING OF TROPICAL CYCLONE RAINFALL

In preparation for the Fourth International Workshop on Tropical Cyclone Landfall Processes(IWTCLP-IV), a summary of recent research studies and the forecasting challenges of tropical cyclone(TC) rainfall has been prepared. The extreme rainfall accumulations in Hurricane Harvey(2017) near Houston, Texas and Typhoon Damrey(2017) in southern Vietnam are examples of the TC rainfall forecasting challenges. Some progress is being made in understanding the internal rainfall dynamics via case studies. Environmental effects such as vertical wind shear and terrain-induced rainfall have been studied, as well as the rainfall relationships with TC intensity and structure. Numerical model predictions of TC-related rainfall have been improved via data assimilation, microphysics representation, improved resolution, and ensemble quantitative precipitation forecast techniques. Some attempts have been made to improve the verification techniques as well. A basic forecast challenge for TC-related rainfall is monitoring the existing rainfall distribution via satellite or coastal radars, or from over-land rain gauges. Forecasters also need assistance in understanding how seemingly similar landfall locations relative to the TC experience different rainfall distributions. In addition, forecasters must cope with anomalous TC activity and landfall distributions in response to various environmental effects.

Experiments with the Improved Dynamical-Statistical-Analog Ensemble Forecast Model for Landfalling Typhoon Precipitation over South China

In recent work,three physical factors of the Dynamical-Statistical-Analog Ensemble Forecast Model for Landfalling Typhoon Precipitation(DSAEF_LTP model)have been introduced,namely,tropical cyclone(TC)track,TC landfall season,and TC intensity.In the present study,we set out to test the forecasting performance of the improved model with new similarity regions and ensemble forecast schemes added.Four experiments associated with the prediction of accumulated precipitation were conducted based on 47 landfalling TCs that occurred over South China during 2004-2018.The first experiment was designed as the DSAEF_LTP model with TC track,TC landfall season,and intensity(DSAEF_LTP-1).The other three experiments were based on the first experiment,but with new ensemble forecast schemes added(DSAEF_LTP-2),new similarity regions added(DSAEF_LTP-3),and both added(DSAEF_LTP-4),respectively.Results showed that,after new similarity regions added into the model(DSAEF_LTP-3),the forecasting performance of the DSAEF_LTP model for heavy rainfall(accumulated precipitation≥250 mm and≥100 mm)improved,and the sum of the threat score(TS250+TS100)increased by 4.44%.Although the forecasting performance of DSAEF_LTP-2 was the same as that of DSAEF_LTP-1,the forecasting performance was significantly improved and better than that of DSAEF_LTP-3 when the new ensemble schemes and similarity regions were added simultaneously(DSAEF_LTP-4),with the TS increasing by 25.36%.Moreover,the forecasting performance of the four experiments was compared with four operational numerical weather prediction models,and the comparison indicated that the DSAEF_LTP model showed advantages in predicting heavy rainfall.Finally,some issues associated with the experimental results and future improvements of the DSAEF_LTP model were discussed.

GRAPES-TCM对登陆热带气旋降水的预报及其性能评估

基于GRAPES-TCM对2006年登陆热带气旋的降水预报结果,对该系统的24 h和6 h降水预报能力进行评估,并与基于卫星降水反演的外推预报(TRaP,Tropical Rainfall Potential)和相似台风降水预报技术(Analog Prediction Technique for Typhoon.Precipitation,TAPT)进行对比。各方法对登陆热带气旋降水的综合预报能力通过分析预报和观测降水散点图、预报平均绝对误差(MAE)及均方根误差得到,降水分布型态的预报能力通过计算预报和观测降水的相关系数估计。此外,还分析了BS、POD、FAR、ETS评分等常用降水预报评估指标。结果显示,GRAPES-TCM的24 h降水预报绝对误差和均方根误差比TRaP和TAPT都大。但是,GRAPES-TCM的24 h降水预报与观测降水的相关系数远比TRaP和TAPT高。对其他指标的分析表明,GRAPES-TCM的漏报率远低于TRaP和TAPT,但3种方法的空报率在同一水平;对任一强度的降水,GRAPES-TCM的ETS评分总是最高,TRaP和TAPT对于大暴雨以上的强降水则几乎没有预报能力。对24小时内每6 h的降水预报,3种方法相对性能与24 h总降水相似。通过对各强度降水造成的降水量在总降水量中的百分比的对比分析,发现GRAPES-TCM预报强降水占总降水量的比重与观测十分接近。总体上说,GRAPES-TCM能较好地预报出登陆热带气旋降水的分布型态,对强降水的预报能力强于外推和相似预报方法,但是预报的降水量绝对误差偏大,尤其对暴雨级别以上降水,其BS值明显偏大。

登陆中国的热带气旋活动及其风雨变化的RegCM4集合预估

登陆热带气旋通过带来狂风、暴雨,给中国沿海地区的人民生活和经济财产造成巨大影响,合理预估全球变暖背景下登陆中国热带气旋的风雨影响,可为中国沿海地区的防灾、减灾工作提供科学指导。文中基于5个CMIP5全球气候模式驱动的区域气候模式RegCM4对当代和两种情景下21世纪末期的动力降尺度模拟结果,评估了区域气候模式对当代登陆中国的热带气旋强度、路径、风雨影响的模拟能力,在此基础上,对该热带气旋特征的未来变化进行了预估。结果表明:区域气候模式可以合理再现观测中登陆中国的热带气旋主要特征,但存在一定的偏差。未来在RCP4.5和RCP8.5情景下,登陆辽宁、山东、江苏、广东、广西、海南和整个中国的热带气旋数量都将增多,其中辽宁、山东和江苏的增幅较大。相比当代,未来情景下登陆中国后的热带气旋强度和大风影响将增强。登陆热带气旋的路径频率有向北移动的倾向,热带气旋导致的平均降水强度在大部分地区将加强,在山东半岛及其附近海域将减少。总体上,在全球变暖背景下,21世纪末期将有更强、更多的热带气旋登陆中国,且其带来的风雨影响也将加强。

Characteristics of extreme rainfall and rainbands evolution of Super Typhoon Lekima (2019) during its landfall

As one of the most devastating tropical cyclones over the western North Pacific Ocean,Super Typhoon Lekima(2019)has caused a wide range of heavy rainfall in China.Based on the CMA Multi-source merged Precipitation Analysis System(CMPAS)-hourly data set,both the temporal and spatial distribution of extreme rainfall is analyzed.It is found that the heavy rainfall associated with Lekima includes three main episodes with peaks at 3,14 and 24 h after landfall,respectively.The first two rainfall episodes are related to the symmetric outburst of the inner rainband and the persistence of outer rainband.The third rainfall episode is caused by the influence of cold,dry air from higher latitudes and the peripheral circulation of the warm moist tropical storm.The averaged rainrate of inner rainbands underwent an obvious outburst within 6 h after landfall.The asymmetric component of the inner rainbands experienced a transport from North(West)quadrant to East(South)quadrant after landfall which was related to the storm motion other than the Vertical Wind Shear(VWS).Meanwhile the outer rainband in the vicinity of three times of the Radius of Maximum Wind(RMW)was active over a 12-h period since the decay of the inner rainband.The asymmetric component of the outer rainband experienced two significant cyclonical migrations in the northern semicircle.

登陆粤西的热带气旋降水特征分析

利用1949～2000年《热带气旋年鉴》资料,对51年来登陆粤西的热带气旋在陆地维持时间、不同强度的降水之间的分布、相同量级强降水的分布等进行统计分析,揭示登陆粤西热带气旋降水分布实况和特征。结果表明,登陆粤西的热带气旋在登陆后的维持时间和其造成陆地强降水范围成正相关的关系;热带气旋造成不同强度(暴雨、大暴雨、特大暴雨)的降水在其路径左右侧分布,雨强越大,出现的几率越少;热带气旋登陆后造成的暴雨量级降水在热带气旋路径右侧比左侧产生的几率更大;而大暴雨、特大暴雨落在路径左侧的可能性比落在右侧的可能性大。

登陆热带气旋在鄱阳湖区的活动特征及原因分析

鄱阳湖流域是受登陆热带气旋(简称TC)影响最为频繁的内陆地区之一。利用中国气象局热带气旋年鉴资料、地面观测资料、中国气象局一日两次的常规探空资料以及NCEP/NCAR一日四次的2.5°×2.5°再分析资料,研究了过鄱阳湖TC的活动特征及其影响。首先统计1949~2012年进入鄱阳湖区域61个TC的活动特征发现,平均而言进入鄱阳湖地区的TC具有移速减慢,强度衰减变缓及降水增幅特征。大尺度环流场分析表明,登陆进入鄱阳湖区的TC处于太平洋副热带高压和东亚大陆高压之间的鞍形场中,引导气流减弱,水平风垂直切变减小,有利于其移速减慢、衰减减缓以及降水累计。几个典型TC个例的观测分析发现,TC降水降低了鄱阳湖区浅层土壤温度和低层大气温度及其日较差,但增加了土壤和空气湿度。鄱阳湖区域下垫面较高的地面热量有利于TC维持。而湖区对流有效位能在TC进入后明显降低,说明TC触发了该区域对流有效位能释放,有利于其降水增幅。

登陆热带气旋影响湖南并造成强降水的气候特征

利用1951～2007年热带气旋、湖南降水资料，统计分析了登陆影响湖南的热带气旋时空分布，及造成的强降水特征。结果表明：57年中登陆影响湖南的热带气旋共161个，平均每年3个，主要出现在7～9月，影响热带气旋主要为台风或以上强度；影响湖南的热带气旋登陆地点以广东、福建最多，强度达强热带风暴或以上的热带气旋可造成极端暴雨降水，时间主要出现在8月。20世纪90年代以后暴雨强度呈加大趋势。