The gender pay gap： Review and update

This paper explores the research behind the wage gap between men and women, the reasons for and extent of the gap, and strategies for dealing with gender pay discrepancies. Historically, gender discrimination was the traditional and easy explanation for pay discrepancies, but more aggressive enforcement of equal pay legislations has virtually diminished the validity of rationalizing the existence of pay differences solely on gender. Statistical data surrounding the pay gap point to other factors as more causal instruments that sustain and perpetuate the gap in spite of more than forty years of enforcement of equal pay legislations. The choices we make seem to predict and explain current wage gaps better than blatant gender discrimination does, and policies directed at improving those choices appear to be better strategic tools in closing the wage gap.

The fable paradigm of the gender pay gap： Evidence from Portuguese private firms

This study investigates gender income disparity in Portuguese firms using separate Tobit models for men and women. While job segregation seems to be one of the major sources of gender disparity, women do not appear to be systematically underpaid in predominantly female occupations, regardless of the industry. The authors found that gender pay gap is larger in domestic firms, and it increases with employees＇ accumulated tenure and decreases with advanced education for women and on labor market entry. Despite showing some encouraging cracks, the glass ceiling still continues to prevent women from reaching top management positions. Finally, despite it appears wage disparity does exist, and it will probably continue to exist, the results point towards a window of opportunity for women.

Financial Inclusion in Nigeria:A Gender Gap Approach

Ability to have access and use financial goods and services such as bank and mobile money accounts indicates the overall financial inclusion level of an economy and the higher the indices are in any economy,the better that economy is.Financial inclusion is important to realize inclusive growth in any country.It has direct impacts on the level of growth and development experienced by any economy.It can however,be skewed along gender lines as noticed overtime in the Nigerian economy and other developing economies.This study examined financial inclusion in Nigeria:a gender gap approach.It also determined the factors responsible for the gender gaps.The Global Findex(2014)dataset of Nigeria from World Bank database was used to analyse the aims of the study.In the study,61% of the men were financially included,while only 43% of the female were financially included,with 18% gap.The gap in endowments accounted for the huge difference of the gap in outcomes as males seemed to be more naturally favoured by society than females.The level of education,wealth quintile,saved in past 12 months for farm/business purposes,sent domestic remittances in the past 12 months,paid utility bills in the past 12 months,and received wage payments in the past 12 months are the factors explaining the gender gaps in Nigeria.Thus the government and other relevant stakeholders should encourage females along these factors.

Gender Pay Gap in the Gig Economy

The rapid ascent of digital platforms and the gig economy has prompted concerns about the gender pay gap.The results show that in the gig economy,gender continues to be a crucial determinant of workers'earnings,with women earning 85%of what men earn on a monthly basis.Nevertheless,in comparison to the traditional waged employment during the same period,the gender pay gap in the gig economy has narrowed.While some gig jobs(e.g.,ride-hailing services,delivery services,online education)exhibit certain occupational segregation,women in gig economy work are no longer concentrated in low-paying roles,thereby challenging the occupational crowding hypothesis prevalent in traditional employment.In the gig economy,the vast majority of the gender pay gaps arise from factors within occupations,and occupational segregation only has a very limited impact on the earnings gap.Additionally,the gender pay gap among platform gig workers can be mostly explained by observable factors,which implies that compared to traditional employment,the gig economy exhibits a lower level of implicit gender discrimination in China.Finally,we investigate new factors that determine the gender pay gap in the gig economy.Women exhibit a stronger aversion to algorithmic control,a preference for job flexibility,and a tendency toward more isolated and less socially interactive work environmentsall of which serve to widen the gender pay gap that might have otherwise narrowed.The results of this research suggest that despite the criticisms surrounding the gig economy,it continues to exert a positive influence on China's labor market。

Labour market segmentation by ownership type and gender wage gap in urban China:evidence from CHIP2013

This paper explores the labour market segmentation by ownership type and its impact on the gender wage gap in urban China.Using the latest data of the China Household Income Project(CHIP)survey conducted in 2014(CHIP2013)and based on the Brown et al.model,I employ the decomposition analysis in this study.It is found that although both inter-sector differentials and intra-sector differentials affect the gender wage gap,the effect of intra-sector differentials is greater.In addition,in considering the effect of intra-sector differentials,the influence of unexplained differentials is greater than that of explained differentials.The results indicate that when other factors are held constantly,discrimination against female workers in a given sector is more serious,which is the main factor that causes the gender wage gap in urban China.

Gender gap in life expectancy in Hong Kong, 1986-2016

Over the past decades,life expectancy in Hong Kong has been increasing steadily.However,the gender gap in life expectancy has experienced a comparatively high level of plateauing state.Based on data from the Human Mortality Database and the official statistics,an age-and cause-decomposition method was used to analyze contributions of main age groups and major causes of death to the gender gap over the period 1986-2016.The results showed that a female-advantage in the mortality among those aged 25 years and above was mainly responsible for the male-female gap in life expectancy in Hong Kong.In consideration of major causes of death,lower female mortality from non-communicable diseases,particularly malignant neoplasms,and pneumonia at older age groups,was the major contributor to the female-favored life expectancy.Public efforts to reduce excess mortality rates from non-communicable diseases and pneumonia among older male population may help narrow the gender gap in life expectancy in Hong Kong.

Statistical Discrimination and Gender Wage Gap： A Model

In this paper, I extend the model in Coate and Loury （CL） （1993） to show how statistical discrimination by employers can help create gender wage gap for men and women with equal earning potentials. Given that employers do not perfectly ob- serve a worker＇s skill type and partly rely on the average skills level of his （her） peers for inference purpose, employers＇ differential treatment of male and female workers can create different skill-investment incentives for them, which in turn justify em- ployers＇ discrimination in the first place. The second result of this paper which is not possible within the original CL framework is that I point to the possibility that there exist circumstances under which the gender wage gap can not be eliminated without the formerly advantaged sex being negatively affected.

Epidemiological-survey-based multidimensional modeling for understanding daily mobility during the COVID-19 pandemic across urban-rural gradient in the Chinese mainland

Human mobility survey data usually suffer from a lack of resources for validation.Epidemiological survey records,which are released to the public as a containment measure by local authorities,provide place visitation details validated by the authority.This study collected and analyzed the epidemiological survey reports published by local governments in the Chinese mainland,between January 2020 and November 2021.To reveal the mobility patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic across the urban-rural gradient in China’s mainland,we derived key mobility indicators from the epidemiological survey data from rural to megacities.We then applied exploratory factor analysis to identify latent factors that affected people’s mobility.We found that the pandemic poses varying impacts across the urban-rural gradient in the Chinese mainland,and the mobility patterns of middle and small cities are more influenced.Our results also showed that the pandemic did not enlarge gender gap in people’s mobility,as gender was not a significant driving factor for explaining people’s quantity of out-of-home activities as well as extent of life space,while age group and city levels were significant.Overall,we argue that the epidemiological survey data are valuable data sources for daily mobility modeling,especially for relevant studies to understand human mobility patterns during the pandemic.

Does Fin tech Narrow the Gen der Wage Gap?Evidence from China

Information and communication technology promotes the rapid development of fintech,which has a far-reaching impact on wage distribution in China.Using data from the Chinese General Social Survey and the Index of Digital Financial Inclusion,this study examines the impact of fin tech on the gender wage gap.We find that fin tech(i)narrows the gender wage gap;(ii)reduces capital constraints and operating costs,thereby promoting female entrepreneurship,driving more women into employment,and enabling women to increase their wages and bargaining power within the household;and(iii)positively impacts the wages of women(and men)who have lower family economic status,and helps women(but not men)counter the risk of decline in wages caused by childbearing and caring under the two-child policy.These findings have important policy implications and provide evidence of women s improving economic conditions leading to a reduced gender wage gap.

Financial Literacy:The Case of China

We scrutinized determinants of financial literacy in China-the largest developing economy,and one with a rapidly expanding financial landscape.We used the China Household Finance Survey's 2013 and 2015 waves,which included the so-called"Big Three"financial literacy questions that test individuals'understanding of compound interest rates,inflation,and risk.We found that financial literacy in the countrywas low.Our results showed that,unlike in developed countries,risk literacy in China was high and financially illiterate people's awareness of their own lack of financial skills was high.Importantly,we showed that female,old,less educated,and low-income peoplewere increasingly lagging ingaining financial skills.Thiswas especially true for the western and central regions of China.Our study complements a limited numberof studies on the financial literacy of the middle class in developing economies.

Female representation in intensive care medicine:Challenges and perspectives from China

The gender gap in the practice of intensive care medicine has increasingly been recognized as a problem in recent years.Despite limited information,the available data suggest that representation of women in the physician workforce,academic positions,and leadership roles in intensive care is inadequate globally.In this article,we describe the situation of female intensive care unit(ICU)physicians from the perspective of Chinese intensivists.The proportion of female ICU physicians in China has been increasing in recent years.The biggest challenges faced by female ICU physicians include balance of work and life,difficulties in career planning,and lack of academic influence.More attention and policy support should be provided to help them play a better role in intensive care medicine.