Theoretical Study on GSH Activation Mechanism of a New Type of Glutathione Transferase Gtt2

Glutathione transferases（GSTs） play an important role in the detoxification of xenobiotic/endobiotic toxic compounds. The α-, π-, and/l-classes of cytosolic GSTs have been studied extensively, while Gtt2 from Saccharo- myces cerevisiae, a novel atypical GST, is still poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the gluta- thione（GSH） activation mechanism of Gtt2 using the density functional theory（DFT） with the hybrid functional B3LYP. The computational results show that a water molecule could assist a proton transfer between the GSH thiol and the N atom of His133. The energy barrier of proton transfer is 46.0 kJ/mol. The GSH activation mechanism and the characteristics of active site are different from those of classic cytosolic GSTs.

Comparative study on glutathione transferases of rat brain and testis under the stress of phenobarbitol and β-methylcholanthrene

A comparative study was made on the tissue specific expression of glutathione transferases (GST) in brain and testis after exposure of rat to phenobarbitol (PB) and β-methylcholanthrene (MC). Glutathione transferases, a family of multifunctional proteins are involved in intracellular transport processes and in detoxication of electrophilic xenobiotics by catalyzing reactions such as conjugation, isomerization, reduction and thiolysis. On purification, the yield of GST proteins by affinity chromatography was 39% in testis and 32% in brain. The affinity purified testis GSTs were resolved by chromatofocusing into six anionic and four cationic isozymes, and in brain glutathione transferases were resolved into four anionic and three cationic isozymes, suggesting the presence of multiple isozymes with Yc, Yb, Yβ and Yδ in both of them. In testis and brain, these isozymes at identical pI values showed variable functions with a battery of substrates and the cationic isozymes of brain and testis showed identical properties in CHP (cumene hydroperoxide) at pH values of above 7.0. Substrate specificity studies and immunoblot analysis of testis and brain proteins revealed that they play a predominant role in the detoxication of phenobarbitol or β-methylcholanthrene. Expression of the isozymes in testis and brain on exposure to PB and MC indicated elevated subunit variation. In both testis and brain, Yδ of π class was expressed on PB treatment and Yc of α class and Yβ of μ class was expressed in MC treated testis and only Yc was predominantly expressed in MC treated brain. Thus these subunits expression is considered as markers for carcinogenesis and specific to chemical toxicity under phenobarbitol and β-methylcholanthrene stress.

Glutathione S-transferases M1,T1 genotypes and the risk of gastric cancer:A case-control study

AIM: Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are involved in the detoxification of many potential carcinogens and appear to play a critical role in the protection from the effects of carcinogens. The contribution of glutathione S-transferases M1 and T1 genotypes to susceptibility to the risk of gastric cancer and their interaction with cigarette smoking are still unclear. The aim of this study was to determine whether there was any relationship between genetic polymorphisms of GSTT1 and GSTT1 and gastric cancer. METHODS: A population based case-control study was carried out in a high-risk area, Changle County, Fujian Province, China. The epidemiological data were collected by a standard questionnaire and blood samples were obtained from 95 incidence gastric cancer cases and 94 healthy controls. A polymerase chain reaction method was used to detect the presence or absence of the GSTT1 and GSTT1 genes in genomic DNA. Logistic regression model was employed in the data analysis. RESULTS: An increase in risk for gastric cancer was found among carriers of GSTT1 null genotype. The adjusted odds ratio (OR) was 2.63 95% Confidence Interval (95% CI) 1.17-5.88, after controlling for age, gender, cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, and fish sauce intake. The frequency of GSTT1 null genotype in cancer cases (43.16%) was not significantly different from that in controls (50.00%). However, the risk for gastric cancer in those with GSTT1 null and GSTT1 non-null genotype was significantly higher than in those with both GSTT1 and GSTT1 non-null genotype (OR = 2.77, 95% CI 1.15-6.77). Compared with those subjects who never smoked and had normal GSTT1 genotype, ORs were 1.60 (95% CI:0.62-4.19) for never smokers with GSTT1 null type, 2.33 (95% CI 0.88-6.28) for smokers with normal GSTT1, and 8.06 (95% CI 2.83-23.67) for smokers with GSTT1 null type. CONCLUSIONS: GSTT1 gene polymorphisms may be associated with genetic susceptibility of stomach cancer and may modulate tobacco-related carcinogenesis of gastric cancer.

Purification and characterization of rat testicular glutathione S-transferases:role in the synthesis of eicosanoids

Aim: Purification of glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) from rat testis; separation and identificationunits and their role in eicosanoid biosynthesis. Methods: Purification of mt testicular GSTs by affit?phy, employing S-hexylglutathione-linked epoxy-activated Sepharose 6B column and separation of indiby reverse phase-high pressure liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Characterization of affinity purified,um dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Westem blot analysis. The roGSTs in eicosanoid biosynthesis was determined by incubating GSTs with 5, 6-Leukotriene A_4Me (prostaglandin H_2 (PGH_2) and analyzing the products formed on HPLC/TLC. Results: The present stumajority of rat testicular GSTs are of Y_b size (60%) with molecular weight of 27 kDa. The most preunits, however, are GST Y_(n2) (27% ), followed by GST Y_c (24% ) and GST Y_(nl) (20%). These testiculavery high Leukotriene C_4 (LTC_4) synthase activity with 5, 6-Leukotriene A4Me (LTA_4Me) as theprostaglandin D (PGD) synthase activity with prostaglandin H_2 (PGH_2) as the substrate. Conclusion:testicular GSTs are Y_b sized and are involved in the synthesis of eicosanoids like LTC_4 and PGD_2.(Asian J Androl 2000 Dec; 2: 277-282)

Expression of Presenilin-2 and Glutathione S Transferase π and Their Clinical Significance in Breast Infiltrating Ductal Carcinoma

To investigate the expressions of presenilin-2 (PS2) and glutathione Stransferase π (GSTπ) and their roles in prognosis and therapy of breast infiltrating ductalcarcinoma. Methods: The paraffin-embedded specimens of 210 patients with breast infiltrating ductalcarcinoma were examined by using LSAB immunohistochemistry for the expression of PS2 and GSTπ.Results: The expression rate of PS2 and GSTπ was 49.5% (104/210) and 48.1% (101/210) respectively.The 5-year and 10-year postoperative survival rates in 4 groups, from high to low, were group 1 (PS2positive expression/GSTπ negative expression), group 2 (PS2 positive expression/GSTπ positiveexpression), group 3 (PS2 negative expression/GSTπ negative expression) and group 4 (PS2 negativeexpression/GSTπ positive expression) in turn. Conclusion: The prognosis of the group 1 was thebest, followed by the group 2, group 3 and group 4 in turn. These results suggested that thereasonable use of endocrinotherapy and chemotherapy for patients with breast infiltrating ductalcarcinoma is necessary.

Kinases and glutathione transferases:selective and sensitive targeting

Kinases,representing almost 500 proteins in the human genome,are responsible for catalyzing the phosphorylation reaction of amino acid residues at their targets.As the largest family of kinases,the protein tyrosine kinases(PTKs)have roles in controlling the essential cellular activities,and their deregulation is generally related to pathologic conditions.The recent efforts on identifying their signal transducer or mediator role in cellular signaling revealed the interaction of PTKs with numerous enzymes of different classes,such as Ser/Thr kinases(STKs),glutathione transferases(GSTs),and receptor tyrosine kinases(RTKs).In either regulation or enhancing the signaling,PTKs are determined in close interaction with these enzymes,under specific cellular conditions,such as oxidative stress and inflammation.In this concept,intensive research on thiol metabolizing enzymes recently showed their involvement in the physiologic functions in cellular signaling besides their well known traditional role in antioxidant defense.The shared signaling components between PTK and GST family enzymes will be discussed in depth in this research review to evaluate the results of recent studies important in drug targeting for therapeutic intervention,such as cell viability,migration,differentiation and proliferation.

STUDY OF THE DELETION MUTATION OF GLUTATHIONE S TRANSFERASE M1 GENE AND ITS ROLE IN SUSCEPTIBILITYTO HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA

Objection: To investigate the glutathione S transferase M1 (GSTM1) gene inherent deletion and its relation to prevalence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in Guangxi, China. Methods: The GSTM1 gene polymorphism of 120 HCC patients and 100 healthy subjects both from the same high aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contaminated area were detected using PCR technique with special primers. Another 40 patients from AFB1 low risk area were also tested. Results: In HCC high risk area, it was found that the frequencies of GSTM1 null genotype in HCC patients and healthy subjects were 59% and 51% respectively, with no significant difference. However, the frequency of GSTM1-null genotype in control group from AFB1 low risk area was lower than those from high risk area (P<0.01). Conclusion: Populations in this HCC endemic region show a higher rate of GSTM1-null genotype, which may be partially responsible for the susceptibility to AFB1 induced HCC. But the detoxification effect of GSTM1 alone is not sufficient to resist the genetic toxicity of AFB1, especially in those people who expose to excess AFB1. The GSTM1 gene deletion would not be suitable as an independent predictor of susceptibility to HCC.

Molecular evaluation of glutathione S transferase family genes in patients with sporadic colorectal cancer

AIM To evaluate the association between polymorphismsin glutathione S transferases(GSTs) and the risk of sporadic colorectal cancer(SCRC), tumor progression and the survival of patients.METHODS A case-control study of 970 individuals from the Brazilian population was conducted(232 individuals from the case group with colorectal cancer and 738 individuals from the control group without a history of cancer). PCR multiplex and PCR-RFLP techniques were used to genotype the GST polymorphisms. The tumors were categorized according to the TNM classification: tumor extension(T), affected lymph nodes(N), and presence of metastasis(M). Logistic regression, multiple logistic regression and survival analysis were used to analyze the data. The results are presented in terms of odds ratio(OR) and 95% confidence interval(CI). The level of significance was set at 5%(P ≤ 0.05).RESULTS Age equal to or over 62 years(OR = 8.79; 95%CI: 5.90-13.09, P < 0.01) and female gender(OR = 2.91; 95%CI: 1.74-4.37; P < 0.01) were associated with increased risk of SCRC. Analysis of the polymorphisms revealed an association between the GSTM1 polymorphisms and a risk of SCRC(OR = 1.45; 95%CI: 1.06-2.00; P = 0.02), as well as between GSTT1 and a reduced risk of the disease(OR = 0.65; 95%CI: 0.43-0.98; P = 0.04). An interaction between the presence of the wild-type allele of GSTP1 Ile105 Val polymorphism and tobacco consumption on risk of SCRC(OR = 2.33; 95%CI: 1.34-4.05; P = 0.05) was observed. There was an association between the GSTM1 null genotype and the presence of advanced tumors(OR = 2.33; 95%CI: 1.23-4.41; P = 0.009), as well as increased risk of SCRC in the presence of a combination of GSTT1 non-null/GSTM1 null genotypes(OR = 1.50; 95%CI: 1.03-2.19; P = 0.03) and GSTT1 non-null/GSTM1 null/GSTP1 Val~*(OR = 1.85; 95%CI: 1.01-3.36, P = 0.04). Combined GSTT1 non-null/GSTM1 null genotypes(OR = 2.40; 95%CI: 1.19-4.85; P = 0.01) and GSTT1 non-null/GSTM1 null/GSTP1 Val~*(OR = 2.92; 95%CI: 1.05-8.12; P = 0.04) were associated with tumor progression. Polymorphisms were not associated with the survival of patients with SCRC.CONCLUSION Females aged 62 years or older are more susceptible to SCRC. Polymorphisms of GSTT1 and GSTM1 null genotypes modulated the susceptibility to SCRC in the population studied.

Antibodies against ribosomal protein S29(RPS29)fused with glutathione's transferase specially react with native RPS29 in mouse and human cells

The ribosomal protein S29 also known as RPS29, is not only a component of the 40S subunit of ribosome, but also involved in embryonic development, oncogenesis and other pathologic conditions. However, rare commercial antibody against RPS29 restricts the discovery of precise physiological and pathological function of this protein. In this study, the whole RPS29 gene was inserted into plasmid pGEX-6p-1 to express glutathione＇s transferase （GST） fusion proteins in Escherichia eoli （E. coli） strain BL21. High yields of soluble recombinant proteins were obtained. Mice were immunized with the recombinant RPS29 protein. The serum from the immunized mice could specially react with purified recombinant RPS29 proteins and native RPS29 proteins in CCE cells by western blotting, immunofluorescence staining and flow cytometric analysis. Further more the polyclonal antibodies also reacted specifically with human cell strain ECV304, which showed typical cytoplasmatic fluorescence. The polyclonal antibodies we prepared would be an available tool for studying the roles of RPS29 in embryonic development and human diseases.

Single-neuron neurodegeneration as a degenerative model for Parkinson’s disease

The positive effect of levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease,although it is limited in time and has severe side effects,has encouraged the scientific community to look for new drugs that can stop the neurodegenerative process or even regenerate the neuromelanin-containing dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons.Successful preclinical studies with coenzyme Q10,mitoquinone,isradipine,nilotinib,TCH346,neurturin,zonisamide,deferiprone,prasinezumab,and cinpanemab prompted clinical trials.However,these failed and after more than 50 years levodopa continues to be the key drug in the treatment of the disease,despite its severe side effects after 4–6 years of chronic treatment.The lack of translated successful results obtained in preclinical investigations based on the use of neurotoxins that do not exist in the human body as new drugs for Parkinson’s disease treatment is a big problem.In our opinion,the cause of these failures lies in the experimental animal models involving neurotoxins that do not exist in the human body,such as 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine and 6-hydroxydopamine,that induce a very fast,massive and expansive neurodegenerative process,which contrasts with the extremely slow one of neuromelanin-containing dopaminergic neurons.The exceedingly slow progress of the neurodegenerative process of the nigrostriatal neurons in idiopathic Parkinson’s patients is due to(i)a degenerative model in which the neurotoxic effect of an endogenous neurotoxin affects a single neuron,(ii)a neurotoxic event that is not expansive and(iii)the fact that the neurotoxin that triggers the neurodegenerative process is produced inside the neuromelanin-containing dopaminergic neurons.The endogenous neurotoxin that fits this degenerative model involving one single neuron at a time is aminochrome,since it(i)is generated within neuromelanin-containing dopaminergic neurons,(ii)does not cause an expansive neurotoxic effect and(iii)triggers all the mechanisms involved in the neurodegenerative process of the nigrostriatal neurons in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease.In conclusion,based on the hypothesis that the neurodegenerative process of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease corresponds to a single-neuron neurodegeneration model,we must search for molecules that increase the expression of the neuroprotective enzymes DT-diaphorase and glutathione transferase M2-2.It has been observed that the activation of the Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1/nuclear factor(erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 pathway is associated with the transcriptional activation of the DT-diaphorase and glutathione transferase genes.

Advances in drug resistance of triple negative breast cancer caused by pregnane X receptor

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women worldwide.Triplenegative breast cancer(TNBC),refers breast cancer negative for estrogen receptor,progesterone receptor and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2,characterized by high drug resistance,high metastasis and high recurrence,treatment of which is a difficult problem in the clinical treatment of breast cancer.In order to better treat TNBC clinically,it is a very urgent task to explore the mechanism of TNBC resistance in basic breast cancer research.Pregnane X receptor(PXR)is a nuclear receptor whose main biological function is to participate in the metabolism,transport and clearance of allobiological agents in PXR.PXR plays an important role in drug metabolism and clearance,and PXR is highly expressed in tumor tissues of TNBC patients,which is related to the prognosis of breast cancer patients.This reviews synthesized the important role of PXR in the process of high drug resistance to TNBC chemotherapeutic drugs and related research progress.

Polymorphism of genes encoding drug-metabolizing and inflammation-related enzymes for susceptibility to cholangiocarcinoma in Thailand

BACKGROUND Cholangiocarcinoma(CCA)is an intractable cancer,and its incidence in north eastern Thailand is the highest worldwide.Infection with the liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini(OV)has been associated with CCA risk.However,animal experiments have suggested that OV alone does not induce CCA,but its combination with a chemical carcinogen like nitrosamine can cause experimentally induced CCA in hamsters.Therefore,in humans,other environmental and genetic factors may also be involved.AIM To examine relations between risk for CCA and genetic polymorphisms in carcinogenmetabolizing and inflammation-related genes.METHODS This hospital-based case-control study enrolled 95 case-control pairs matched by age(±5 years)and sex.We examined relations between risk for CCA and genetic polymorphisms in carcinogenmetabolizing and inflammation-related genes,serum anti-OV,alcohol consumption,and smoking.Polymorphisms of CYP2E1,IL-6(-174 and-634),IL-10(-819),and NF-κB(-94)and their cooccurrence with polymorphisms in the drug-metabolizing enzyme gene GSTT1 or GSTM1 were also analyzed.RESULTS Although CCA risk was not significantly associated with any single polymorphism,persons with the GSTT1 wild-type and CYP2E1 c1/c2+c2/c2 genotype had an increased risk(OR=3.33,95%CI:1.23-9.00)as compared with persons having the GSTT1 wild-type and CYP2E1 c1/c1 wild genotype.The presence of anti-OV in serum was associated with a 7-to 11-fold increased risk,and smoking level was related to an OR of 1.5-1.8 in multivariable analyses adjusted for each of the seven genetic polymorphisms.CONCLUSION In addition to infection with OV,gene-gene interactions may be considered as one of the risk factors for CCA development.

GSTT1,GSTM1 and CYP2E1 genetic polymorphisms in gastric cancer and chronic gastritis in a Brazilian population

AIM:To test the hypothesis that,in the Southeastern Brazilian population,the GSTT1,GSTM1 and CYP2E1 polymorphisms and putative risk factors are associated with an increased risk for gastric cancer. METHODS:We conducted a study on 100 cases of gastric cancer (GC),100 cases of chronic gastritis (CG),and 150 controls (C).Deletion of the GSTT1 and GSTM1 genes was assessed by multiplex PCR.CYP2E1/Pst1 genotyping was performed using a PCR-RFLP assay. RESULTS:No relationship between GSTT1/GSTM1 deletion and the c1/c2 genotype of CYP2E1 was observed among the three groups.However,a significant difference between CG and C was observed,due to a greater number of GSTT1/GSTM1 positive genotypes in the CG group.The GSTT1 null genotype occurred more frequently in Negroid subjects,and the GSTM1 null genotype in Caucasians,while the GSTM1 positive genotype was observed mainly in individuals with chronic gastritis infected with H pylori. CONCLUSION:Our findings indicate that there is no obvious relationship between the GSTT1,GSTM1 and CYP2E1 polymorphisms and gastric cancer.

GSTM1,GSTT1,GSTP1 and CYP1A1 genetic polymorphisms and susceptibility to esophageal cancer in a French population:Different pattern of squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma

AIM:To evaluate the association between CYP1A1 and GSTs genetic polymorphisms and susceptibility to esophageal squamous cell carcinoma(SCC)and esophageal adenocarcinoma(ADC)in a high risk area of northwest of France. METHODS:A case-control study was conducted to investigate the genetic polymorphisms of these enzymes (CYPIAI*2C and GSTP1 exon 7 Val alleles,GSTMI*2/*2 and GSTTl *2/*2 null genotypes).A total of 79 esophageal cancer cases and 130 controls were recruited. RESULTS:GSTMI*2/*2 and CYPIAI*IA/*2C genotype frequencies were higher among squamous cell carcinomas at a level dose to statistical significance(OR =1.83,95% CI 0.88-3.83,P=0.11;OR=3.03,95% CI 0.93-9.90,P=0.07, respectively).For GSTP1 polymorphism,no difference was found between controls and cases,whatever their histological status.Lower frequency of GSTT1 deletion was observed in ADC group compared to controls with a statistically significant difference(OR=13.31,95% CI 1.66-106.92,P<0.01). CONCLUSION:In SCC,our results are consistent with the strong association of this kind of tumour with tobacco exposure.In ADC,our results suggest 3 distinct hypotheses: (1)activation of exogenous procarcinogens,such as small halogenated compounds by GSTT1;(2)contribution of GSTT1 to the inflammatory response of esophageal mucosa,which is known to be a strong risk factor for ADC, possibly through leukotriene synthesis;(3)higher sensitivity to the inflammatory process associated with intracellular depletion of glutathione.

Astrocytes protect dopaminergic neurons against aminochrome neurotoxicity

Astrocytes protect neurons by modulating neuronal function and survival.Astrocytes support neurons in several ways.They provide energy through the astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle,protect neurons from excitotoxicity,and internalize neuronal lipid droplets to degrade fatty acids for neuronal metabolic and synaptic support,as well as by their high capacity for glutamate uptake and the conversion of glutamate to glutamine.A recent reported astrocyte system for protection of dopamine neurons against the neurotoxic products of dopamine,such as aminochrome and other o-quinones,were generated under neuromelanin synthesis by oxidizing dopamine catechol structure.Astrocytes secrete glutathione transferase M2-2 through exosomes that transport this enzyme into dopaminergic neurons to protect these neurons against aminochrome neurotoxicity.The role of this new astrocyte protective mechanism in Parkinson´s disease is discussed.

Role of MGST1 in reactive intermediate-induced injury

Microsomal glutathione transferase (MGST1, EC 2.5.1.18) is a membrane bound glutathione transferase extensively studied for its ability to detoxify reactive intermediates, including metabolic electrophile intermediates and lipophilic hydroperoxides through its glutathione dependent transferase and peroxidase activities. It is expressed in high amounts in the liver, located both in the endoplasmic reticulum and the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes. This enzyme is activated by oxidative stress. Binding of GSH and modification of cysteine 49 (the oxidative stress sensor) has been shown to increase activation and induce conformational changes in the enzyme. These changes have either been shown to enhance the protective effect ascribed to this enzyme or have been shown to contribute to cell death through mitochondrial permeability transition pore formation. The purpose of this review is to elucidate how one enzyme found in two places in the cell subjected to the same conditions of oxidative stress could both help protect against and contribute to reactive oxygen species-induced liver injury.

Role of microRNA-21 in uveal melanoma cell invasion and metastasis by regulating p53 and its downstream protein

AIM： To reveal the insight mechanism of liver metastasis in uveal melanoma, we investigated cell functions of microRNA-21 in three different uveal melanoma cell lines and analyze the relationship of target gene p53 and its downstream targets which been found significant expression in our previous study.METHODS： Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction （qRT-PCR） was used to detect microRNA-21 expression in normal uveal tissue and uveal melanoma cell lines. Lenti-virus expression system was used to construct OCM-1, MuM-2B and M619 cell line with stable overexpression and inhibition of microRNA-21. In vitro cell function tests such as cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, cell circle and abilities of migration and invasion were examined by MTT, BrdU assay, flow cytometry, transwell assay and Matrigel invasion assay respectively. The target gene was predicted by bioinformatics and confirmed by using a dual luciferase reporter assay. The expression of p53 and its suspected downstream targets LIM and SH3 protein 1 （LASP1） and Glutathione S Transferase pi （GST-Pi） were determined by qRT-PCR in mRNA level and western blotting analysis in protein level. Finally, the effect of microRNA-21 in a xenograft tumor model was assessed in four-week-old BALB/c nude mice. RESULTS： Compared to normal uveal melanoma, expressions of microRNA-21 were significantly higher in uveal melanoma cell lines. Overexpression of microRNA-21 promoted proliferation, migration, and invasion of OCM-1, M619 and MuM-2B cells, while inhibition of microRNA-21 reveal opposite effects. Wild type p53 was identified as a target gene of microRNA-21-3p, and proved by dual luciferase reporter assay. Up-regulated microRNA-21 inhibited the expression of wild type p53 gene, and the increased expression of LASP1 in mRNA level and protein level, while down-regulated microRNA-21 presented opposite way. However, GST-pi showed the potential pattern as expected, but relative mRNA level showed no statistically significant difference in OCM-1 cells. Furthermore, the mRNA expression of GST-pi was decreased in microRNA-21 overexpressing MuM-2B, and increased in M619 cells with inhibition of microRNA-21. In vivo, inhibition of microRNA-21 reduced tumor growth with statistically significant difference.CONCLUSION： These findings provide novel insight into molecular etiology of microRNA-21 in uveal melanoma cell lines, and suggest that microRNA-21 might be a potential candidate for the diagnosis and prognostic factor of human uveal melanoma in future.

Human GSTs Polymorphisms in the Hakka Population of South China and Their Associations with Family History of Several Chronic Diseases

Objective To investigate the associations of genetic polymorphisms in GSTs genes of the Hakka population of south China with family histories of certain chronic diseases.Methods Five hundred and thirty‐nine healthy Hakka natives of Meizhou city of Guangdong province in south China were involved.The genotypes of GSTM1,GSTT1,GSTP1,GSTM3,and GSTA1 were determined using PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis.The observed polymorphisms were analyzed by Chi‐square and Hardy‐Weinberg equilibrium tests.Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the associations of the distributions of GST genotypes with family history of certain chronic diseases.Results The distributions of polymorphisms in GSTP1,GSTM3,and GSTA1 conformed to the Hardy‐Weinberg equilibrium.Compared to the Cantonese,the Hakka had a lower distribution of the GSTM3 deletion genotype （3.15% vs.11.9%）.A weak association was observed between the GSTM1 genetic polymorphism and family history of hypertension.Alcohol drinkers had a higher frequency of the null‐GSTM1 genotype,while smokers had a higher frequency of a variant GSTP1 genotype.Conclusion The results suggest that the Hakka is a special and distinctive Han Chinese ethnic group with different GSTs genetic polymorphisms.Smoking and drinking might be related to the distribution of GST genotypes.